Culture and Language in Society Essay Example for Free

Culture and Language in Society EssayIn a world that is rapidly woful toward a predominantly technological and uniformed system, linguistic process and goal be becoming increasingly crucial to delimitate an individual. For m either people, culture still tout ensemble dictates their way of life, as is evident in many religions, such as Hinduism, where the line among religious traditions and everyday life is blurred. Just as atomic number 1 Trueba can be quoted in Afforming Diversity, Whatever chouseledge we acquire, it is always acquired through watchwords and culture, two interlocked symbolic systems considered essential for human interaction and survival. Culture and language atomic number 18 so intricately intertwined that evening trained scholars find it impossible to decide where language ends and begins, or which unmatchable of the two impacts the other the most (189). Without language, culture would be, as Trueba stated, virtually non- followent, as certain em otions can yet be conveyed in certain languages. The same holds true for language, as it is often impossible to deliver texts while retaining the same literary and emotional connotations the archetype version contained because certain words only exist in those languages.Moreover, language, especially in literature, leaves more than up to interpretation, and translations often omit any ambiguity that the author may shoot originally intended. When searching for English versions of Fyodor Dostoyevskys Crime and Punishment, several versions are available, each seed by different individuals. In each of these books, differences can be observed in the way the plot is described, though they seldom make any difference in the larger scheme. Even the spelling differs (e. g. Dunya and Dounia) simply because of the way the translator thought the word sounded phonetically.By the same token, reading a Tang dynasty poem in Chinese differs greatly from the English translation. Though the Engli sh version manages to retain most of the poets original message, it lacks the fluidity and the poetic essence that can be anchor in the same poem in Chinese. As with all subjective issues, language is subject to interpretation, and to take away a literary works original language is to deduct from the piece as a whole. Knowledge, however, is not, as Trueba described, acquired solely through culture and language.It is not necessary for language to exist in vow for us to know that fire is hot, or that water is wet. Though we may not be able to place these feelings with these specific words, we know that they exist because our sentiency of touch tells us so. If I chose to call fire water, the flames would still burn my hand when I touched it even if I had attributed a word that would commonly extinguish the flames to it. By doing so, I have not changed the entity I have renamed, but have simply categorized it under a different label.A baby does not need to know the meaning of the wo rd hot in order to know that a burning stove is extremely nimble to the touch, or the meaning of the word light in order to know that it is brighter in the day than it is at not. After all, a rose by any other name would be just as sweet (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet). Ever since ancient days, culture and language have played integral roles in defining an individual and dictating ones everyday life. The morals that we live by are directly related to our cultural values, which are evident in ancient texts, such as the Koran, Bible and Torah.These books, however, have been translated so many times that their meaning has no doubt been at least slightly changed. In the Jewish culture, the Torah must be recited in Hebrew, the original language of the Jews. In this instance, Hebrew is much more than just a language it excessively symbolizes the religious beliefs and customs of the Jewish people, and in this way, much of their traditional culture can be retained. Likewise, Catholics con duct Mass in Latin (though it is not as common anymore) and like in Judaism, much of the culture is maintained that way as well.Language leads directly to culture and culture to language in a cyclical process so that the boundaries between the two become virtually nonexistent. By the same token, language (be it English, Russian, Greek or Japanese) would differ greatly from what we know today if culture were to cease to exist. a good deal of culture as we know it would be lost without language, as it would be next to impossible to carry on cultural traditions from generation to generation without a means of communication. Much of the vocabulary accumulated in languages is a direct result of cultural practices, traditions and innovations.Each time a new revolution in society or technology takes place, a string of new words is developed. It is estimated that a few dozen new words are added to the English language alone each year. 1 Common words such as television, Internet, and teleph one would have meant nothing two short centuries ago. The word silhouette only came into existence after the French Minister of Finance under Louis XV, Etienne de Silhouette, began decorating his office with cheap, black paper cutouts.Back then, the word was associated with stinginess, as the people felt suppress by the strict financial measures he set on the French in order to replenish the treasury, which had suffered as a result of wars with Britain and Prussia. 2 Today, however, the word is often used to described stylish, chic products, and can be found on cars like the Oldsmobile Silhouette, and shoes, such as Silhouette, a Dutch shoe store. As culture develops, language, too, must evolve to accommodate the new changes as people feel the need to identify objects and feelings with words.A someones way of utilizing language can also tell a lot about his/her cultural background. For someone raised in a normal urban environment, the word Negro will have a very meaning as opposed to the individual who had grown up in the Ku Klux Klan. For the urban New Yorker, Negro would be a uncomplimentary and foetid term that should never be used. For the Klan member, however, the term would equate to ignorant and degraded and altogether sold to the devil. Likewise, the word woman could be considered a derogative insult depending on the context it is used in. For many women in this modern era, if a man were to say Hey woman, get over here and help me with this, it would physiognomy the man getting a slap across the face, because it not only is insulting, but also reminds women of the days when they were considered deficient to men. This attitude exists particularly in horse opera culture where women are considered equal to men (even still, discrepancies exist, particularly in positions of power and politics).In many Islamic countries, however, this kind of deprecating behavior towards women is acceptable to the baksheesh that a woman basically becomes her husbands property. Calling someone hey woman would certainly not be regarded as derogatory or insulting by the majority of the people in these countries (e. g. Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan). For the women there, such behavior is acceptable because it is tolerated within their culture. The word itself is simply another label that describes who they are. In a culture that believes that women are inferior to men, sexism towards women in language would be common.Three centuries ago, the same attitude would hold true in Western civilizations as few women could hope to rise above the system and hold a position other than that of a housewife. It had been a belief that too much learning for women would result in evil. Thus, women often obtained an reading only to the third grade level. Since society had deemed this acceptable and even necessary back then, calling someone woman would not be as offensive as it would be today. Though the word has remained unchanged, the connotation it carries differs greatly as a result in cultural changes.The number of languages one knows also reflects on the level of cultural advisedness one has. The more languages one knows, the more likely it is he/she will have a deeper sense of the various cultures that exist in the world. Being bilingual in Chinese and English, I am able to understand Chinese culture better than someone who does not know the language because my view of the Chinese culture and traditions is subject only to my own interpretation, rather than that of a tour guide, publisher, author or another individual.As stated previously, it is impossible to translate everything word for word and thus certain phrases can only be communicated effectively in the original language, yet such expressions are often imperative to further understand a culture. For example, the words Long live the people of the world appear on the Tiananmen gate in Beijing. To translate it literally, however, the same phrase would be May the people of th e world live for 10,000 years. Though the general meaning is the same, slight differences still exist. Language and culture are inextricably linked in defining an individual, society and nation.Without one, the other would cease to exist as we know it. Simply by listening to the language, or even a dialect, a person speaks, one can often tell a lot about their cultural background. Generally speaking, the Californian accent shows that the person is most likely laid back and easy going, while the Southern drawl may depict a persons tendency to take things slowly. As it would be unlikely to find a member of the social elite speaking Ebonics (Black English), it would be safe to assume that the individual who speaks the dialect is from an urban environment, and is culturally aware of the urban scene.Just as Trueba had states, there is no division at which language ends and culture begins, as they continue in a cycle with one completing the other. In order to understand ourselves better, we must first understand our heritage, which is composed largely of language and culture. To find a definite distinction between the two would be impossible and would call for a change to language and culture as we presently know it.https//www.hugedomains.com/domain_profile.cfm?d=tlsmarketinge=com

Education policy Essay Example for Free

upspeech insurance EssayEducation the basic pack Object of Education Importance of Education Back soil of Pakistans Educational System Educational System in Pakistan Key Performance Indicators for Education Systems PROBLEMS OF program line IN PAKISTAN 1. Medium of Education 2. Disparity of System at Provincial Level 3. Gender Discrimination 4. neglect of Technical Education 5. Low parceling of funds 6. Inefficient Teachers 7. Poverty 8. Corruption 9. Social imbalance 10. Mismanagement of System 11. Infrastructure Problems 12. secret school governing body 13. Lack of trainingal activityal policies 14. addition in nation 15.Lack of attention of the authorities 16. Lack of uniform commandal remains 17. Medium of Instruction 18. Education as a traffic 19. Delay in renewal of policies and broadcast 20. Political Interference SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 1. English should be medium of Instruction 2. Talented and qualified supply 3. Fulfill the lack of teac hers 4. Primary bringing up should be made compulsory 5. Increase in teachers incentives 6. Translation of irrelevant research to local language 7. strike out(a) on distinctive raising- 8. Scholarships and pecuniary sponsor to students 9. Special Financial packages 10.Betterment of education policies and teachers workshop 11. Infused Technical Education 12. Promotion of primary education Conclusion Essay Education the basic need Education is the light of the life. Education proves to one of the most important concomitantors for the organic evolution of valet civilization. Education enhances human berth and leads incessantlyyone to propriety. it is a around-the-clock and life vast parade. It attri andes most important, precious and permanent property of an individual. Education provides manpower, strengthens issue unity and uplifts public awargonness. It invites positive and constructive commute in life.It makes our life really prosperous and meaningful. Everyone want s to be well educated. Life can be successful by the help of appropriate education. Educated someone can only judge what is correct and what is wrong And takes the appropriate and right decision save uneducated person fails to do so. Object of Education Robert Maynard Hutchins describes it as The object of education is to prep be the young to educate themselves throughout their lives. We should portion out our youth the way to educate themselves. Edward Everett said that Education is a better safety of liberty than a standing army. Importance of Education We all know the importance of education. It is the most important aspect of any nations pick today. Education builds the nations it determines the future of a nation. ISLAM also tells us about Education and its importance. The real essence of Education according to ISLAM is to know ALLAH but I call in in our country we truly lost. Neither our schools nor our madrassas (Islamic Education Centres) be truly educating our youth in this regard. In schools, we atomic number 18 just preparing them for Money. We arent educating them we are just preparing Money Machines.We are only change magnitude the result of the books for our children and just enrolling them in a reputed, big school for what, just for social status On the other hand in our madrassas we are preparing people who finds very difficult to adjust in the modern society. Sometimes it seems that they are from some other planet. A madrassa student cant compete plain in our country then the World is so far from him. He finds very difficult to even speak to a school boy. It is crystal clear that Islamic Education is necessary for Muslims but it is also a fact that without modern education no one can compete in this world. in that respect are many ex healthys of Muslim Scholars who not only study the Holy Quraan but also master the other subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Astronomy and many more, with the help of Holy Quraan. I think with the current education system we are narrowing the way for our children kinda of widening it. in that respect is no doubt that our children are very talented, both in schools and in madrassas, we just need to give them proper ways to groom, give them the space to become Quaid-E-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Allama Iqbal, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Alberoni, Abnalhasam, or Einstein, Newton, Thomas Edison.The education system we are running with is not working anymore. We take up to find a way to tie this gap between school and madrassa. Background of Pakistans Educational System Numerous supranational assessments could explore that Pakistan is lagging behind many countries in achieving the Education for All refinement (EFA). We were the signatory to the treaty under Dakar Framework where it was decided by all the developing countries that they will be trying to earn the target of EFI in the meeting held in Senegal in 2000.UNESCO rates in Pakistan are at a lower EFA development Index (ED I) because of low register at primary school, adult literacy, gender equity and e timbre, equalities in education and quality of education. The adult literacy in Pakistan, in spite of concerted efforts, fail to go beyond the border line of 50 percent. The women literacy is such(prenominal) more belittling as thirty three percent of the adult women cannot even read. The more include would be that we would not be catching the target to achieve the adult literacy by 2015.Progress towards the achievement of the targets is exceptionally slow, while gender parity goal is at risk of not being achieved by 2015. Moreover, more than 6 million children are out of school. Educational System in Pakistan Education system in Pakistan is really having a bad configuration at the moment. thither is no doubt in accepting the fact that education stands the backbone for the development of nations. Looking at the history of nations, we may safely reach the conclusion that the advanced nations of the w orld could reach the zenith of prestige and power taking support from education.The allocations for education are too meager, and in spite of allocation, the substance is not spent for what it was meant for as the corruption is found in all the tiers of education and also because of the aforesaid(prenominal) delivery from the government institutions that is much below the desired and aspired levels. Private education in Pakistan is far reaching for the poor and the turnover of this quality education does not serve the country the way they are supposed to. Planning for education does not go in congruence with the ask and implement frame ever ignored, so by this way the system is getting more spoiled preferably than flourishing.Our universities have failed to produce the planners, developers, implementers, and decision makers. Rather the turnover is a couple with the ground realities, the half backed persons we are producing are of no use to us. The students we come across are d egree seekers rather than the knowledge. The increase in publication of colleges and universities does not mean that we are going by the standards rather these are worsening, a simple endorse of which is that no Pakistani university could find a space among the top 1000 universities of the world. The socio- sparing scenario is directly attached with the status of Education in the country.The developed world managed to denture up their education in line with the postulate and market requirements. Despite the recent achievements, a lot more is needed to be done as the country still faces numerous challenges which cause deterrence. We are under obligation to raise the education of our cosmos to the level of our South Asian neighbors, to combat our own social and economic wants to the satisfactory level. The very scale of Pakistans education sector more than 150,000 public education institutions serving over 21 million students and a huge buck semiprivate sector that serves anoth er 12 million presents formidable challenges.Education is found to be the cheapest and tangible defense mechanism for a nation on the social, political, and economic fronts. But the overcome trodden condition of education in Pakistan bears an ample testimony of the fact that it is unable to defend its own sector. Over the span of 64 years, the nation has been given the 23 policies and action plans but we could not start the march towards success and are waiting for a savior who could take the system out of turmoil. There were ample spending in the government of Pervaiz Musharraf on education and due to which, we could see the visible positive educational change in Pakistani society.Currently the economic situation in Pakistan is under severe stress and education sector has received the highest impact in Pakistan. The Constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan has led to the fact in the following words, The state of Pakistan shall remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education inside minimum possible period of time. In human race development Report, Pakistan is placed at 136th position because its 49. 9% population comes under the definition of education. The dropout rate is alarmingly high at the primary level consequently, it is revealed by the Data Center of UNESCO, that 33. 8% fe manfuls and 47.18% in males could pass through the most initial level of education. We may be conclusive about the ground reality that people in the 6th largest country of the world have no access to the basic education even. Key Performance Indicators for Education Systems The ofttimes used indicators for assessing education and its systems are adult literacy rates, male and female enrollment at different levels of education, participation rate in the different areas of the country the dropout rates, the amount of alternatives allocated to education as a proportion of the GDP and some measures of the quality of education being pursued.At the moment, the workability of these indicators rests on the footing of authenticated and recent info so that the planning details may be worked out with confidence. Irony of fate, the indicators, their footings and the quality of data all want more authenticity, but unfortunately, Pakistans record lacks objectiveness and rationality on all counts. PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN 1. Medium of Education The system of education in Pakistan is operative in match with the local needs and ground realities.It is almost a decisive factor that the education in the mother tongue surrenders more dividends but we have the system more unintegrated and diversified just contrary to our requirements. A good example of it is that we fail to decide about the Medium of education over the span of 64 years. diametrical mediums are operational in both, public and private sector. This creates a sort of disparity among people, dividing them into two segments. 21. Disparity of System at Provincial LevelThe Region s of Pakistan in the name of provinces are not at par as regards the infrastructure, availability of staff, their training, content mastery allocation of resources and their utilization. This develops a disparity not only in the system but in the turnover too. There is a need to revisit the schools in Baluchistan (The Largest Province of Pakistan by area) because these are not that much train as that of Punjab (The Largest Province of Pakistan by Population). In FATA, the literacy rate is deplorable constituting 29. 5% in males and 3% in females.The conditions are to be made more delightful about teaching and learning in all parts of the country without any discretion. 22. Gender Discrimination We should have know how of the population comprising females, unfortunately their education is not attended to the way it was deemed fit. The gender discrimination is a cause that is modify towards the low participation rate of girls at the basic level of education. The male and female part icipation ratio is projected at the primary school in the shape of ratio of boys girls as 104 respectively.In the go passed, government invited private sector to shoulder the responsibility of education of the youth. The intent was also to provide the education at the doorstep to the children especially the female students. The private sector took up the challenge and there was an increase in the growth of private schools but this step didnt cause the increase in the students or the quality. The masses could not be enticeed because of precious education. It created clear cut tiers of society and created a gap among those with the haves and have nots. 23. Lack of Technical EducationThere is a craze for the white collar jobs for the same pupils. Select the command rut of education, though they have the to the lowest degree tilt or the capacitor to hump with the demands. China, Japan and Germany have the ruts for those who have a taste for and do not achieve the excellence in th e general rut of education. We have kept the opportunities clear-cut for all to participate in general education at all levels especially the university level. We could not attract the general masses towards technical education fashioning them to earn of their own act as the entrepreneurs and make their living without being the burden on the government.Education system is needed to be revamped making a space for the science, IT, management, and pupil with the excellence to go to the higher education pursuing the education of their own choice. Lesser emphasis on technical education substance the lesser manpower for industry and hence the lesser finance generation. 24. Low allocation of funds The allocation of funds for education is very low as it never went beyond 1. 5 to 2. 0 percent of the total GDP. Even this amount was not utilize and had to be surrendered back to the government because of want of expertise and the knowledge of codal formalities and in time release of funds. There is a need to increase it around 7% of the total GDP keeping in view the allocations by the neighboring countries, there is also a need to rationalize the share at the different levels not ignoring any. 25. Inefficient Teachers political relation fails to attract the potential candidates for teaching with the zeal vigor and excellent carrier. Teaching is rated as the lowest among the jobs for the youth, because of lesser incentives, slow promotions and lesser fringe benefits. The teachers in government schools are not well groomed and equipped with knowledge and training.People who do not get job in any other sector, they try their hatful in educational system. There is a need to reorganize pre-service and in-service trainings making them matched with the requirements rather to keep them ideal, unique and novel. 26. Poverty Poverty is growing over the years. The reasonable assort is vanishing like anything. It happens to be a curse for the nation that experiences without h aving the average income group. The escalation of poverty has restricted the parents to send their children to tasks for child labor or at least to public or private schools.In these schools, the drop out is very high because schools are not the attractive places, the broadcast is dry and the teaching does not match the live situations. Poor parents are constrained to send their children to madressahs where the education is totally free. 27. Corruption Corruption causes the educational policies, plans and projects to fail because of being the major contributing factor. There is no accountability and transparency in the system, the salaries are low, the incentives are too less to be accounted and even those are uneven. An estimated Rs. 2,594 million out of a total of Rs.7,016 million provided for improvement of school facilities such as buildings, electricity, drinkable water, etc had gone unaccounted during the fiscal periods 2001-06 (UNESCO Bano, 2007). Similarly, more than 70% lit eracy centers in Punjab remained inoperative or exist only on paper (ADBP, 2007). The chances of ghost schools should be evaded by involving the community in the processes of inspection and monitoring. 28. Social imbalance The students from the elite illuminate follow the O and A levels syllabus instead of Pakistans routine orthodox and stagnant curriculum.They have little or no awareness of their religion and culture whereas those passing out from Urdu medium schools are usually destined to work in clerical and lower level positions. Religious madrassas churn out yet another class that is usually unaware of the world outside their own perception. 29. Mismanagement of System Teachers absenteeism, poor professional training, sub-standard materials and obsolete teaching methods act as the major contributive factors towards the low enrolment in schools.Burki (2005), opines that most of the public schools are either mismanaged or poorly managed. They are found imparting education of second-rate quality through substandard textbooks and curricula that do not cater the needs of the 21st century. The education should be based on learning outcomes through suggesting multiple books rather than following a single book as an obligation. 30. Infrastructure Problems The dropout rate of those lucky enough to be enrolled goes beyond 45% as has been divulged by the several(prenominal) reports.Most of the public sector educational institutions stay in a status of poor condition lacking even basic facilities, resultantly shaking the presupposed standards of education. There are four areas that snivel for pressing concentration which are curriculum, textbooks, examinations, and teacher training (Hoodbhoy, 2001). The textbooks need be made more facilitating, student and learning friendly. 31. Private school system Private Schools in Pakistan enroll more students than in other countries of the region. They least bother about the capacity and facilities available, they rather ov er burden the teaching staff.The rapid mushroom growth of private schools and academies of teaching reflect the peoples lack of trust in the public sector schools coupled with a deprivation of sufficient educational institutions to cater to the needs of the fast growing population. However, there are certain private schools which are slightly better than the public ones. In the elite schools where the quality education is offered, heavy fees is charged that continues to be a problem. These private sectors schools are meant only for a special sector of the population and are out of the reach of general masses.The private sector schools should be brought under the control of rules making these somewhat accessible for the common population. 32. Lack of educational policies The guinea pig Education Policy (1998-2010) was developed prior to Dakar. It has a clear cut vision and direction to support the education department. Since the 2001, the Ministry of Education has developed a enum erate of policy documents including that of case Education policy (2009) but the endeavors remain focused on paper work more rather than the operationalization, though the involvement of NGOs and internationaldevelopment agencies is very much there. The simple reason is that the plans are vicious and not the ground reality based. The policies should be environment friendly. . 33. Increase in population Literacy in Pakistan has risen from 45 to 54 percent within the span of 2002 to 2006, simultaneously primary enrollment rates have also increased from 42 to 52 percent. The population explosion could not enable to catch the targets. In spite of the increase in the certain parameters, the participation rate in Pakistan remains the lowest in South Asia.Alongside it, there are marked male-female, inter-regional and rural-urban disparities Only 22 percent of girls, compared to 47 percent boys, complete primary schooling. female person literacy in rural Baluchistan is only 32 percent comp ared to high urban male literacy rates (and 80 percent among the urban male in Sindh) 34. Lack of attention of the authorities Most of the criticisms leveled against the education procedures and practices may be rationalized through improving governance and accountability.It would be tangible and workable if we could go for considering the merit, enabling capacity building, increasing investments in education as an industry and finally giving the heir and fire powers to the administrative heads. The private sector and the banks should finance the educational surroundings with confidence, as at the moment, we are spending 2. 3 percent of GDP which is the lowest in South Asia. 35. Lack of uniform educational system There is a crying need for quality which calls for homogeneity among the procedural formalities like the observance of the curriculum.Had it been uniform the working for it, further extension becomes easier and getting the mind skimmed out of masses becomes possible. Curr ently, the poor are deprived of education in the elite institutions which are causing the development of a special class. This class doesnt work for the nation they work elsewhere but are fed through the national resources. 36. Medium of Instruction We took a long period in deciding that what our medium of instruction would be, till now we dont have a clear picture before us. It is good to have the National language as the medium of communication provided we have a rich treasure of knowledge.In our case, we do not fail to develop Urdu to share with the intellectual needs nor do we translate the treasure of knowledge available for our national use. 37. Education as a business Education has been pursued by some of the people as an industry but because of being illiterates, they fail to cope up with the stipulated standards. The leader with vision spoils the mission as well as the projects undertaken. Their only intent is money making that has caused the decay in the standards, induct ion of sub-standard staff, and depriving the deserving to grow.They dont want to catch with the move of success but they try to be good entrepreneurs. 38. Delay in renewal of policies and syllabus/Political Interference There is a need to continuously update the curriculum because if it goes stale, it does not equip the beneficiaries with the saleable skills and expertise. At the first place, the problems cited have arisen due to lack of commitment and inefficient management on the part of state. The policies lack long term vision and its death penalty strategies are being affected by undue political interference.In addition to it, the measures taken are not evidence based and geared by the vested interests of the authorities. Whatever strategies have been applied failed to promote the rational and critical thinking skills amongst the students. At the second place, we find lack of resource commitment and realistic implementation alongside poor allocated resource utilization. As re levant statistics are not available, implementation of the education policy has not been successfully executed. At the third place, we come across weak budgetary planning because of staggered data and least coordination among the data maintaining units (USAID, 2006).The coordination, match with the assessment, project design and implementation are not to the desired level within the government and with the donor agencies. The harmonization is missing too between the federal and provincial governments which cause drastic problems in the policy implementation. The policy formulating, planning and implementing bodies work in isolation as the water tight compartments. The governments consultation is very much restricted and does not go beyond its specific quarters.It should have to be extended to non-state sectors to initiate and mobilize the action. Teachers does not normally form the part of policy making process, hence the process of sharing and consultation remains missing. It leads to implementation of educational policies without consultation, thus the efforts go in vain (UNESCO, 2007). Over the span of time, what we have learnt is to go for dialogue, and keeping the private and public sector on board. The matter of access to education and challenges to quality remain at stake as being unresolved despite much policy deliberation.Recently, Minister of Education announced a new Education policy for that next 10 years ignoring the fact that the previous educational policy span still persists that was from 1998 to 2010. The policy has projected new plans and promises to the nation pointing to the fact that all the public schools will be raised to the level of private schools within the shortest period of time. In the absence of a plan of action, the suggested plan of action would not work. The schools have been put under obligation to use the national curriculum and encourage the students of 5th and 8th class to take board exams.This has disturbed the students o f private sector also. It is urged that the Universities should be the research centres and must not be allowed to act as the examining bodies for graduate or post-graduate examinations. Allocations are supposed to be made to the aspired levels as UNO suggests a country to allocate at least four percent of its GDP towards education but here in Pakistan we are just allocating less than two percents of GDP. Even that is not fully utilized because of procedural formalities. Suggested Solutions for Educational System 13. English should be medium of InstructionEnglish language should be the medium of instruction from beginning to the higher levels of learning. National language should be a supporting language for communication facilitation and every day business. Efforts should be made to enhance the knowledge treasure in the national language through translation of the research based information. 14. Talented and qualified Staff Hiring should be made from amongst the highly qualified an d the teachers should be paid not according to the level of education but the qualification of the staff. 15. Fulfill the lack of teachersEfforts should be made to bring down the student-teacher ratio to 151 in lieu of current 401. Consequently, the number of teachers will have to be enhanced, leading to the rise in number of teachers and enabling the competent persons to be inducted to the system of education. 16. Primary education should be made compulsory Primary education should be made compulsory and free (it is already free of cost but not compulsory). It should also be made appealing, impressive, interesting and utilitarian to attract the general masses. 17. Increase in teachers incentivesTeachers should be offered more financial benefits by increasing their pays. 18. Translation of unconnected research to local language University professors should be encouraged to conduct and share the research to the concerned stakeholders. They should also be asked to translate the forei gn research into local languages for sharing it with the lower formations of education enabling them to implement/take benefit out of it. 19. Check on distinctive education- Government should strictly check all private educational institutions for keeping a balance of standards and level of practices. 20.Scholarships and financial support to students Students should be offered more scholarships and government should support the intelligent and outstanding students to prosper, develop and serve their local community rather than migrating to the big cities. 21. Special Financial packages The dilemma here in Pakistan is that students are record but they use their intelligence in negative way, hence, contributing nothing towards the development of country. Another problem with Pakistan is brain drain. Capable and outstanding professionals prefer foreign jobs instead of serving in their own country.This is due to the low financial benefits and indifferent attitude of government towards them. Recently Government should provide them facilities and special financial packages to encourage them to stay in their own country. 22. Betterment of education policies and teachers workshop In the view of importance of education, the Government should take solid steps towards implementation instead of projecting policies. In this regard, the allocations should be made easy and timely from provinces to districts and then to educational institutes. Workshops must be arranged for teachers as a continuous feature for learning.23. Infused Technical Education Technical education should be infused into the regular system stream. The education board of Punjab has projected a plan to give tech- education to the children of industrial workers. 24. Promotion of primary education Promotion of the primary education should be made possible by consulting teachers, professors and educationists while devising any plan, syllabus or policy for it. There should be a balance in reliance on public a nd private for enabling education to reach the general masses in its true shape.Students outlook is to be broadened by taking them out of the books into the practical realities. Education is the only cure of disability of the state and for bringing revolution through evolution and by eradicating the social evils through education. Conclusion Education serves as the backbone for the development of nations. The countries with the effective impressive need oriented, saleable and effective system of education comes out to be the leaders of the world, both socially and economically. It is only education which can turn a burden of population into productive human resource.Pakistans current state demands that the allocations for education be doubled to meet the challenges of EFI, gender disparity and provision of teachers in the work places earlier than 2018 as per stipulated qualifications. Millennium Development Goals are yet to be realized latest by 2015. The natural calamities, politic al turbulence, provincialisms, and political motivations make the best planned, fail. The allocations towards the sector of education could not be enhanced because of the earlier. We have to revisit our priorities to keep the country on the track of progress.

Study On The Applications Of Numerical Analysis Computer Science Essay

Study On The Applications Of Numerical Analysis Computer Science EssayIt finds applications in alone heavenss of engineering and the physical sciences, nevertheless in the 21stcentury, the life sciences and even the arts have adopted elements of scientific computations.Ordinary differential equationsappear in themovement of heavenly bodies (planets, stars and galaxies) optimisationoccurs in portfolio managementnumerical bilinear algebrais significant for data analysisstochastic differential equationsandMarkov chains atomic number 18 immanent in simulating living cells for treat and biology.Before the advent of modern computers numerical modes practically depended on hand interpolationin turgid printed tables. Since the mid 20th century, computers calculate the required lasts instead. The interpolationalgorithmsnevertheless may be accustomd as part of the software for solvingdifferential equations.INTRODUCTION TO NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND METHODSThe overall goal of the doma in of a function of numerical analysis is the design and analysis of techniques to give suppose provided accurate solutions to hard conundrums, the variety of which is suggested by the interest.Advanced numerical methods are essential in makingnumerical weather predictionfeasible.Computing the trajectory of a spacecraft requires the accurate numerical solution of a system of ordinary differential equations.Car companies can improve the crash safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes. Such simulations essentially consist of solving incomplete differential equationsnumerically.Hedge funds(private investment funds) use hammers from all fields of numerical analysis to calculate the value of stocks and derivatives more precisely than about other food market participants.Airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments and fuel needs. This field is also calledoperations research.Insurance companie s use numerical programs foractuarialanalysis.The rest of this section outlines several important themes of numerical analysis.History of Numerical AnalysisThe field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modern computers by umpteen centuries.Linear interpolationwas already in use more than 2000 years ago. Many great mathematicians of the past were preoccupied by numerical analysis, as is pellucid from the names of important algorithms likeNewtons method,Lagrange interpolation polynomial,Gaussian elimination, orEulers method.To facilitate computations by hand, self-aggrandising books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation billets and function coefficients. Using these tables, often calculated out to 16 decimal places or more for some functions, one could look up values to plug into the formulas given and progress to precise good numerical estimates of some functions. The canonical work in the field is theNISTpublication edited byAbramowit z and Stegun, a 1000-plus page book of a truly large do of commonly utilise formulas and functions and their values at many points. The function values are no longer actually useful when a computer is available, but the large listing of formulas can still be very handy.Themechanical calculatorwas also developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was then found that these computers were also useful for administrative purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of numerical analysis, since straightway longer and more complicated calculations could be done.Direct and iterative methodsDirect methods compute the solution to a paradox in a finite number of steps. These methods would give the precise answer if they were performed ininfinite precision arithmetical. Examples includeGaussian elimination, theQRfactorization method for solvingsystems of linear equations, and thesimplex methodof linear programming. In practice,finite precisionis used and the result is an approximation of the true solution (assumingstability).In contrast to direct methods,iterative methodsare not judge to terminate in a number of steps. Starting from an initial guess, iterative methods form successive approximations thatconvergeto the exact solution only in the limit. Aconvergence testis specified in order to decide when a sufficiently accurate solution has (hopefully) been found. Even using infinite precision arithmetic these methods would not reach the solution within a finite number of steps (in general). Examples includeNewtons method, thebisection method, andJacobi iteration. In computational matrix algebra, iterative methods are in general needed for large problems.Iterative methods are more common than direct methods in numerical analysis. Some methods are direct in principle but are usually used as though they were not, e.g.GMRESand theconjugate gradient method. For these methods t he number of steps needed to obtain the exact solution is so large that an approximation is accepted in the same manner as for an iterative method.DiscretizationFurthermore, continuous problems must sometimes be replaced by a discrete problem whose solution is known to approximate that of the continuous problem this process is calleddiscretization. For example, the solution of adifferential equationis a function. This function must be be by a finite amount of data, for instance by its value at a finite number of points at its public, even though this domain is a continuum.Different Areas And Methods under Numerical AnalysisThe field of numerical analysis is divided into different disciplines according to the problem that is to be solved.One of the simplest problems is the evaluation of a function at a given point. The most straightforward approach, of just plugging in the number in the formula is sometimes not very efficient. For polynomials, a better approach is using theHorner scheme, since it reduces the necessary number of multiplications and additions. Generally, it is important to estimate and controlround-off errorsarising from the use offloating pointarithmetic.Interpolation, extrapolation, and regressionInterpolationsolves the following problem given the value of some unknown function at a number of points, what value does that function have at some other point between the given points?Extrapolationis very similar to interpolation, except that now we want to find the value of the unknown function at a point which is outside the given points.Regressionis also similar, but it takes into account that the data is imprecise. presumptuousness some points, and a measurement of the value of some function at these points (with an error), we want to determine the unknown function. Theleast squares-method is one favourite way to achieve this.Solving equations and systems of equationsAnother fundamental problem is computing the solution of some given equatio n. Two cases are commonly distinguished, depending on whether the equation is linear or not. For instance, the equation2x+ 5 = 3is linear while22+ 5 = 3is not.Much effort has been put in the development of methods for solvingsystems of linear equations. Standard direct methods, i.e., methods that use somematrix decompositionareGaussian elimination,LU decomposition,Cholesky decompositionforsymmetric(orhermitian) andpositive-definite matrix, andQR decompositionfor non-square matrices.Iterative methodssuch as theJacobi method,Gauss-Seidel method,successive over-relaxationandconjugate gradient methodare usually preferable for large systems.Root-finding algorithmsare used to solve nonlinear equations (they are so named since a root of a function is an argument for which the function yields zero). If the function isdifferentiableand the derivative is known, thenNewtons methodis a popular choice.Linearizationis another technique for solving nonlinear equations.Solving eigenvalue or singul ar value problemsSeveral important problems can be phrased in terms ofeigenvalue decompositionsorsingular value decompositions. For instance, thespectral image compressionalgorithmis based on the singular value decomposition. The check tool in statistics is calledprincipal component analysis.OptimizationOptimization problems ask for the point at which a given function is maximized (or minimized). Often, the point also has to satisfy someconstraints.The field of optimization is further split in several subfields, depending on the form of the objective function and the constraint. For instance,linear programmingdeals with the case that both the objective function and the constraints are linear. A famous method in linear programming is thesimplex method.The method ofLagrange multiplierscan be used to reduce optimization problems with constraints to free optimization problems.Evaluating integralsNumerical integration, in some instances also known as numericalquadrature, asks for the v alue of a definiteintegral. Popular methods use one of theNewton-Cotes formulas(like the centre of attention rule orSimpsons rule) orGaussian quadrature. These methods rely on a divide and conquer strategy, whereby an integral on a relatively large square up is broken down into integrals on smaller sets. In higher dimensions, where these methods become prohibitively expensive in terms of computational effort, one may useMonte Carloorquasi-Monte Carlo methods(seeMonte Carlo integration), or, in modestly large dimensions, the method ofsparse grids.Differential equationsNumerical analysis is also concerned with computing (in an approximate way) the solution ofdifferential equations, both ordinary differential equations andpartial differential equations.Partial differential equations are solved by first discretizing the equation, bringing it into a finite-dimensional subspace. This can be done by afinite element method, afinite differencemethod, or (particularly in engineering) afinit e volume method. The theory-based justification of these methods often involves theorems fromfunctional analysis. This reduces the problem to the solution of an algebraic equation.Applications Of Numerical Analysis Methods and Its substantial Life Implementations, Advantages Etc.NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD devote OF point of intersection 2 ADVANTAGES 1. The advantage of the method is its order of convergence is quadratic. 2. Convergence rate is one of the fastest when it does converges 3. Linear convergence near multiple roots.REGULA FALSI METHOD ORDER OF CONVERGENCE 1.618 ADVANTAGES 1. Better-than-linear convergence near simple root 2. Linear convergence near multiple root 3. No derivative needed DISADVANTAGES 1. Iterates may mold 2. No practical rigorous error boundGAUSS ELIMINATION METHODADVANTAGESIt is the direct method of solving linear simultaneous equations. 2. It uses back substitution. 3. It is reduced to like upper triangular matrix. 1. It requires right vectors to be know n.GAUSS JORDAN ADVANTAGES 1. It is direct method. 2. The roots of the equation are found immediately without using back substitution.. It is reduced to equivalent personal identity matrix. The additional steps increase round off errors. 2. It requires right vectors to be known.GAUSS JACOBI METHOD1. It is iterative method. 2. The system of equations must be diagonally dominant. 3. It suits better for large numbers of unknowns 4. It is self correcting method.GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD1. It is iterative method. 2. The system of equations must be diagonally dominant. 3. It suits better for large numbers of unknowns 4. It is self correcting method. 5. The number of iterations is less than Jacobi method.Real life ApplicationsArea of mathematics and computer science.Applications of algebraGeometryCalculusVariables which vary continuously.Problems(application areas)1. Natural sciences2. Social sciences3. Engineering4. Medicine5. Business.(in financial industry)Tools of numerical analysisMost reg ent(postnominal) tools of numerical analysisComputer graphicsSymbolic mathematical computationsGraphical user interfacesNumerical analysis is needed to solve engineering problems that lead to equations that cannot be solved analytically with simple formulas.Examples are solutions of largesystemsof algebraic equations, evaluation of integrals, and solution of differential equations. The finite element method is a numerical method that is in widespread use to solve partial differential equations in a variety of engineering fields including stress analysis, fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and electro-magnetic fields.In hydro static pressure processingIn high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing, food and biotechnological substances are compressed up to 1000 M Pa to achieve various pressure-induced conversions such as microbial and enzyme inactivations, phase transitions of proteins, and solid-liquid state transitions.From the point of view of thermodynamics, Heat transfer leads to spac e-time-dependent temperature fields that affect many pressure-induced conversions and produce unsought process non uniformitiesEffects related to HHP processing can be studied appropriately by use of numerical analysis because in situ measurement techniques are barely available, optical accessibility is hardly possible, and technical equipment is expensive.This reports on two examples, where numerical analysis is applied successfully and delivers substantial insights into the phenomenon of high-pressure processing.CalculationE.g TSP problem (traveling salesman problem)to travel no. of cities in such a way that the expenses on traveling are minimized. NP-complete problem. optimal solution we have to go through all possible routes numbers of routes increases exponential with the numbers of cities.Modern Applications and Computer SoftwareSophisticated numerical analysis software is being embedded in popular software packagese.g. spreadsheet programs.Buisness Applications-Modern busine ss makes much use of optimization methods in deciding how to allocate resources most efficiently. These include problems such as inventory control,scheduling, how outperform to locate manufacturing storage facilities, investment strategies,and others.In Financial IndustryQuantitative analysts underdeveloped financial applications have specialized expertise in their area of analysis.Algorithms used for numerical analysis range from basic numerical functions to calculate interest income to advanced functions that offer specialized optimization and forecasting techniques.Sample Finance Applications iii common examples from the financial services industry that require numerical algorithms are Portfolio selection Option pricing Risk managementIn marketGiven the broad range of numerical tools available a financial services provider can develop targeted applications that address specific market needs. For example, quantitative analysts developing financial applications have specialized e xpertise in their area of analysis.

A Case Study On Warlordism In Africa History Essay

A Case Study On Warlordism In Africa History Es tellWarlordism has appe ard in virtually(prenominal) some other(prenominal) commonwealths and cultures in history. Currently in that respect argon 2 countries, in which contendlords play an important fictional character these are Afghanistan and Somalia. In my paper I pull up stakes try to describe this form of ruling in a case of Somalia what digest warlords brought to common spate, how pick out they affected their lives and possibly how may their future look like.Warlordism is known as the prevailing form of policy-making organization in the south- key regions after the fall of Siad Barres regime in the early 1990s. Warlords, the leaders of Somali brand-newly emerged political factions, begun to play an important role principal(prenominal)ly after the fall of Siad Barres regime in 1991. These powerful men, who base their support mainly on club identification, falsifyd the country of Somalia a dance orchestra when they were act their own ambitions. The main goal of my work is on that pointfore finding the answers to these questions what caused warlordism to deck out in Somalia, what happened during their rule in the 1990s and what impacts ge enjoin had warlordism on this country.For better lucidity, I divided my seminar work into four study chapters.The first chapter is rather theoretical it explains the meaning and origin of the word warlord and it tries to offer most exact definition of warlordism.The pastime part of my paper seeks an explanation of why has warlordism become such a significant phenomen of Somalia, w here lie its roots and it alike reminds of the role of Siad Barre in Somali history. It describes the rise of warlords and also their gradual fall during the indorse half of the 1990s. For better belowstanding, I added two subchapters the first is near clans in Somalia and the second whizz takes a side by side(predicate) look on how the situation looks like in d ifferent Somali regions.The third chapter examines the impacts of warlordism on common life of Somalis, what was their contri bution to Somalis after the year 1991. Again, two subchapter were added. The first subchapter explains, where warlords gain there resources for maintaing warfare and watching their rule it also offers somewhat interesting conclusions of researchers from the World Bank approximately Somali scrimping and Somalis themselves. The second subchapter tells about rather sad remains of Barres regime about militarization of society.The last chapter takes a brief look on the way how shit warlordism and courteous war varietyd the role of a women in Somali society. It shows that in spite of their inferior situation, they still carry on some important function in common life of Somalis.1 A definition of warlordismWarlord is a person who controls a specific area of his country with phalanx forces that are loyal to him and non to a central government. He uses his po wer beyond his legitimacy, often thinking that war is the turf out way of ruling. By doing this, he differs from a feudal, who has also military power, however he still stays loayl to a central governmant (or leader).This word (warlord) comes from the German word Kriegsherr, that has similar meaning. Even Germans use nowadays the English condition instead of their own.1Warlordism is therefore a form of ruling by warlords and can be described above all in so called failed accedes. Generally, in these assigns there is either no central government or authority, or this government has lost its control over the country. According to Anderson, most of the failed sound outs share these three feature film features Firstly, the central government has effectively lost control and authority over the territory. Secondly, internal violent conflict is or has youngly been rampant. Thirdly, the level of human woe is appalling. Extreme poverty and starve are widespread and growing. Atroc ities are being committed. Human rights grossly violated and otherwise curcapable diseases turn into epidemics.2.The Fund for ease creates e very(prenominal) year so-called Failed States Index, which mixes sociable, economic and political indicators. For the year 2009, 38 countries most of them from Africa were classified as alert. The highest index level was assigned to Somalia (114,7)3. In a specific case of Somalia, we can therefore speak not only about a failed state, but many scientists and journalists describe it as a collapsed one. It instrument lack of state institutions and state coercive powers who cannot offer public services anymore.4If we would like to be more precise at the description and origin of warlordism, there can be found four major characteristics1) Rule over a small part of country is overtaken by trained and armed man, who extend to use of instability of a central authority2) These men seek their own self-interest, not a public favour3) Legitimacy of wa rlords comes from their personal charisma and the devotion of followers4) Because of their self-interest, country is divided into small political and economical sections, free trade is disrupted, therefore economy is slowing and contradictory investors do not wish their capital to be part of this territory.5Examples of this system can be found in many countries. It appeared and appears in Afghanistan, Iraq, Burma, Chechnya, Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sri Lanka, Sudan and Pakistan. In this paper, I will describe the current situation in Somalia.2 The origin and progress of warlordism in SomaliaThe beginnings of warlordism in Somalia can be observed after a coup detat in 1969, when general Siad Barr took control over the country. He rewarded well those were loyal to him, to his clan, but with the help of bribes, gossip and intrigues, he managed to fragment other factions (which were alleged(a) to get weaker) this tactic is described as divide-and-rule. Domestic resourc es and foreign aid were not used for development, rather for rewarding Barres loyal clans and their military leaders and to retaliate disloyal ones. This brought a massive instability, causing armed oppositionist clans to rise over against Barres regime, first in the northeast region, and then in the northwestern, southern and central regions all take away the territory ruled by Barre. Combined with rather disastrous result of the war with Ethiopia, Barre started to lose control and other factions began strengthening their positions. It resulted into polite war, where Siad Barr was overthrowned and anarchy again reigned this country. Cause of the Somali civil war is not only clan system, but the roots lie in wrong distribution of resources and power, long-lasting corruption, exploation, domineering regime and wrong development. All these elements mixed together caused what we saw in the first half of the 90s in Somalia.The red ink of war with Ogaden gave a birth to new polit ical factions. People from the Majerteen sub-clan of the Darod established the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), operating in central Somalia, opus the Isaaq clan took control over the north, under the name of Somali National Movement (SNM). The last important faction, emerged during the reign of Siad Barre, was the United Somali Congress, consisting of the biggest clan of the Hawiye, and occupied central-south Somalia. At the time of Barres fall, there was about 15 political factions in Somalia. A year later, major centres were occupied by the four surdest warlords. While Mogadishu was divided into two parts betwixt Aidid and Ali Mahdi, Mohamed Said Hersi controlled Bardaro and the port of Kismaayo was under the rule of Ahmed Omar Jess. All four fought strongly among themselves, bloody fights occured especially amid the two leaders of Mogadishu.6Therefore we can hypothesise that former clans emerged now as political factions with warlords in their lead and these factio ns often crossed clan lines. What was also broken and missing, was the Xeer law.7Regrettably after the collapse of regime, warlords were not able to unify, to maintain central government with warlords in its lead. They could agree governed the whole country, but they were unable to make an agreement, so all that remained was shattered country with comparatively small territories, controlled by military leader. Militias were not struggling for taking place in government the war simply degenerated in anarchy and banditry. The only exceptions rised in the north, forming Somaliland and Puntland.Fights among the leaders for remaining resources and for strategic points (harbours, airports, major cities etc.) brought great havoc to this country and because farmers were not able to work on their fields due to persisting warfare, hunger spread quick among inhabitants. The result of their warfare was also spread of armaments, the nearly complete destruction of the capital of Mogadishu, plun dering of almost all public goods and state properties, fleeing of almost one million of Somalis abroad and separation of at first Somaliland, and than Puntland in the north. The civil war destroyed almost all state institutions, the social and economic infrastructure and broke all food supplies, both from internal and external sources.Boundaries of traditional clan territories take a crap quite an changed since the start of civil war. Weaker clans have been driven out of their homeland, while stronger ones took their positions. The raids were targeted at profitable areas (rich agriculture lands, ports, cities etc.) and locals often fled because of violence that is brought by attacking warlords. It is also an example of Puntland, from which many people have fled by means of Yemen to Australia, America or Scandinavia.8The main interest of rising warlords was prolonging of stateless(prenominal)ness, as their crimes agains locals errupted massive stolen property, unresolved property disputes and occupied territory.9It were not only warlords, who had an interest on prolonging of civil war and anarchy. Also some businessmen voted strongly against a rebuilding of government, as a new administrative could easily see through their business and cut their gains from illegal trade to minimumSince 1995, conflicts have changed a lot in Somalia. From a large-scale warfare betwen clans that plagued the whole country to only local conflicts mingled with sub-clans began to emerge. These conflicts had oft less duration and were also not so bloody, as only a couple of(prenominal) people were involved. The are several reasons for this change clan elders gained much more authority, also warlords have finally strongd their regions and also have less resources to buy means of war weapons and ammunition. The biggest incentive gave however Somalis themselves people became finally fed-up with their tyranny, especially businessmen, who refused to pay any fees and taxes just fo r passing through warlord operated territories. Therefore they hired Islamists militias, who represented a formidable threat to warlords. Islamic radicals quickly restricted warlords rule. The real power had only those warlords controlling strategic places (like ports, cities, airports) or those in high positions (memebers of the government etc.) Meanwhile, businessmen formed their own private protective cover forces to guard their property since the new government was unable to do that these private forces are ranked among the most powerful in Mogadishu.Although crimes of warlords are deceasing in progress, clear collars are beginning to represent a new threat to Somali stability, since their increasing counterfeiting of currency, which strongly undermines Somali economy.102.1 Clannism in SomaliaClans are base units of society in Somalia throughout its history. Yet their role has somewhat changed in last years, especially after the accesion to power by Siad Barre.First I would like to characterize a Somali clan. Clan identity is not fixed here, and is subject to change. Warlord maipulates people to gain their loaylty to achieve his goals, (where they are political, territorial, economic or military). However, it does not mean that the members of clans change their membership constantly both day. It happens only when see that someone else can offer them better conditions. A few points can be observed about the changes of clans and clan identities in Somaliaa) traditionally, clans served more like mediators, their purpose was to bring peaceableness and stability to the country, also shifting of clan identities was not so often. This was changed during the rule of Siad Barre, when clan leaders manipulate other followers to acquire their goals, and this shifting of clan identities became a primary source of conflicts (not clans themselves.b) in the beginnings of Somali civil war, conflicts occured especially between major clans. In progress, conflicts becam e more and more localized, even between the leaders of the same clan (fights between subclans andeven between sub-subclans), like it happened for example in Somaliland eventhough they gained some independence, new clashes emerged inside ruling Isaaqs clan.As I mentioned, the primary source of conflicts are shifting clan identities. But it it also true that clans are main and probably the only way how to bring peace to Somalia, as they it was in past Somalia. Legitimacy of clan elders and of traditional customary law (xeer) could be the sources of cooperation and reconciliation. A clan is Somalia is a double-edged sword it closely links Somalis and tears them apart11.2.2 Divided countryThe following lines describe the differences between the main Somalia region.From 1991, many formal, self-declared adiminstrations have arisen. We can distinguish between these four types transregional, regional, district and municipal. Examples of transregional and regional entities can be found ob viously in Somaliland and Puntland. The problems is that although they provide some basic functions, they do not posses the marks of an internationally recognized sovereign state like issuing of passports and so on.But not only these two have tried to gain some autonomy the Rahanweyn Resistance Armys administration of Bay and Bakool regions in 1998-2002 and the Benadir Regional Authority in 199612. These territories are often formed on clan homelands or former colonies, like Puntland, which is situated on the territory of the Harti clans, or Somaliland, the place of the former Brittish colony. Warlords could therefore build a new state by adding existing blocks together. There is however another clash between centralists and federalists. Centralists fear that a divided state will become much weaker and will offer an opportunity to neighbouring countries to slowly appropriate separeted territories, while federalists are mainly those, who dont have any representatives in government and fear that the TFG could take too much from them.There is a strong regional diversity in Somalia from the relatively peaceful and secure provinces in the north to the war-torn territories in the south. Rich lands of southern region, ports and acces to sea are the sources of conflict that still prevails in this part of Somali country. The Lower Shabelle region doesnt seem to form some regional authority, as clashes between various factions and warlords over rich agriculture and marine resources still continue. On the other hand, the Middle Shabelle region proves to be relatively stable in recent years thanks to new formed administration.Other clashes continued to torment the Lower Jubba region, especially those around the port of Kismaayo. The winner of factions wars was the clan Juba Valley Authority, which holds a relatively strong position over this territory. Neighboring Middle Juba and Gedo regions also lack some strong authorities the Gedo region must in attachment face at tacks form Ethiopian soldiers, who are trying to pacify local Islamic groups.The regions of Mudug, Galgaduud and Hiraan in the northwest of Mogadishu officialy claim some authority, but de facto have none. They provide no basic functions, have no authority or legitimacy to govern. Security is provided by traditional leader and Islamic courts, to some extent.In opposite to the southern and the central regions, the north-east and west terriotries have succeeded in forming stable and secure provinces without significant violent conflicts. Even administrative organs and state institution appear here, providing some basic functions. Somaliland, occupying the north-west part, formed on bounderies of the former British colony in 1991. Despite two minor civil conflicts in 1992 and 1994, it has created its onw bicameral parliament, judiciary, police force and municipal structures, also elections are regularly held.Somaliland was followed by Puntland in the north-east eight years later. Simil ar to Somaliland, Puntland also faced internal conflicts from 2001-2003 concerning constitutional crisis, but those two were solved peacefully. Like in Somaliland, peace and security has attracted some foreign investment and NGOs, however in a smaller quantity compared to its western neigbour.133 The impacts of warlords ruleIn a case of Somalia, we can say that the absence of state authority or defined state borders is not an essential problem for this country. Most African states gained their independence almost overnight, which brought many problems. Examples may be ethnic conflicts as a result of arbitrary boundaries, weak institutional system full of corruption and bureaucracy, weak links between state and civil society or monocrop economy too dependent on exports14. Also most African people have had bad experience with both colonists and post-colonial leaders, who have often cruelly victimized them and used state institutions and state power only for their personal profit. No wonder why many Africans rather do not believe in advance(p) systems of free market and liberal democracy. For a long time, they had their own system of organization that worked well. If we describe anarchy as a system without a central government, than in Somalia lasted anarchy all the time, before colonists arrived (the difference between anarchy past and present is that in pre-colonial era, round of population was not dying or being in danger of dying because of hunger, as it happened in 199215). Families, clans, tribes and villages had their own rules and traditions, with which their could prosper relatively good. They also had their own leader. Would it be so bad, if that leader became a warlord?Somali experience answers us the question yes, it would. As much as order within clans or tribes is well-kept, people still need basic functions of state to be organised. They need to have their rights protected, their basic needs to be satisfied. Property rights, security, infrastru cture, electricity, schools, health-care or (for common people not so important) some political represantion these things have to exist in case a state wants to be succesfull and prosperous these days. If warlords took care of this, it would have been no problem. However, warlords in Somalia have not been able to secure these things, they have cared rather about their personal gains while exploiting this already poor country and fighting for remaining resources, than about people needs. Thats why we can say that warlordism have affected the country of Somalia quite negatively, it has spreaded fear and hate among civilians and was profitable only for those who were loyal and close to the warlords. Warfare brought among civilians was terrible. The Lower Jubba region was affected by far the worst. To maintain the patronize system and to acquire more weapons, warlords needed money. They gained financial resources by selling livestock and agricultural products of locals, later even that of foreign food aid. Rural inhabitants were terrorized almost instantly after Barre was overthrown. Destruction was systematic, wells, ponds, grain stores, seeds and livestock consumed, carried off, killed or destroyed.16Because of many refugees, who were forced to flee the country and settle in abroad, we can say that warlords are responsible for Somali diaspora, which have affected many Somali lives till nowadays. Somalia is highly dependent on remittance and for many people it is the only way how to survive (remittances make up about 825 mil. USD in 2004, which is about 60 % of GNP17). Warlords have also prevented people from stretchability basic state functions healthcare, education, infrastructure and so on. Especially education, which is important everywhere and everytime, was signifacantly missing, as new young people can help their country, at to the lowest degree by describing and understanding what is happening there, so the foreigners could better comprehend what is go ing on.Furthermore, not only that warlordism doesnt help locals, it also keeps off foreign countries from helping. Risky environs full of chaos will probably not attract foreign investors. Foreign aid is stolen by the warlords, and those delivering it are kidnapped or attacked.18Under these circumstances, only few countries are willing to help such countries, whether with humanitarian, development or military aid. Especially in case of Somalia, after the debacle of the US and the UN forces in 1993, the westerly states consider twice before they send some troops to these regions.To summ up, no matter how bad experience have Somalis with autocrative regimes, a creation of some state authority still looks better that status-quo. Stronger government (without warlords in its lead) with control over the country seems to be at least some solution to current problems.Furthermore, except of breaking internal security, warlordism also threatens neighbouring countries. Collapsed Somalia, wit hout a well-guarded border, is ideal for smugglers, illegal trade of weapons and drugs. In addition, unstable environment will surely attract those who need to be hidden radicals, extremists, terrorists. Somalia is a great example, as after reclaiming the power by Islamic Union Courts in 2006, some highly-sought terrorists from al-Qaida appered in these territories. Which attracted a major enemy of terrorists, the government of the United States, and the US Army began consequently airstriking suspicous villages in the south region, where terrorists were hiding. However, the US did not well in this case, as they supported enemies of UIC warlords, who on the contrary used these resources to gain more power, so they could continue with exploiting Somali inhabitants. Not a good idea from the US, I would say.3.1 Economic consequences of warlordismTo maintain dissorder and to keep their power, warlords need money. The main sources of their income are money they receive from foreign spon sors, from taxes and charges levied on trade routes, ports, airports or in big cities or even on some sections of road, or, there have been attempts to use counterfeit Somali currency, which was printed abroad. Another problem of Somalia is qat (khat), a flowering plant with cathinone alkaloid, which is a stimulant causing excitement, loss of appetite and euphoria. The WHO considers this plant as a drug of abuse19. Since Islam forbids Somalis drinking alcohol, they chew this plant to have at least some feelings of intoxication. Similar to the Czechoslovakian people, who meet in pubs and drink beer, Somalis meet in a place called mefrish, where they chew en mass20. Not only that workers are of course less effective while being drugged what is more important is the fact that the distribution of khat is nearly entirely controlled by warlords, who gain huge pelf from the drug trade and they use these revenues to acquire more weapons and other means of warfare and therefore more power. Conflicts between warlords also caused massive economic problems. shut of human casaulties number of people who were killed by war and disease, who were never born or who emigrated is estimated about 2 millions, there is also a great poverty, by which is affected about 43 percent of population Moreover, Somalia finds itself at the bottom of the most African (and worlds) economic rankings. Also its external debt has increased a lot from the beginning of civil (2 billion USD) to nowadays (about 3,2 billion USD)21. Nevertheless, trade was not so affected by warfare and private sector adapted very quickly on the lack of state institutions. When Saudis placed a ban on livestock (mainly sheep and goats), they simply direct their trade elsewhere. This example shows us another characteristic feature of Somalis their resiliance. As I said, many Somali economic indicators lie even behind the worlds poorest countries. Yet we should mention that these data do not vary so much from those of p re-civil war this shows us high resilience of Somali people, who could adapt to very difficult conditions. Moreover, state collapse brought to Somalia what even morphologic adjustment programmes could not privatization and liberalization of economy and of all public services water, electricity or security especially telecommuncation system have developed quite well so far.22It shows us, that Somalia was not unified politically, economic integration of Somali regions went on well through free flow of goods, services and informations. Economy is able to develop itself, although foreign aid is either missing (after the debacle of UN forces in 1993-1994) or being looted by warlords.Trade has to face some difficulties here though, as important markets placed in major cities have become too dangerous and risky for trading as a result of warfare. So traders need to operate on different trade routes. Also some states, especially from Arabian peninsula, refuse to do business with Somalis, as there are no veterinary controls. Menkhaus23appoints however, that the lease of Somali merchants for new roads a trading routes, so they could trade more easily and safely, is one of the primary causes of incurred peace processes and peace talks. Furthermore, it is an argument for weakening position of warlordism. Without warlord rule, traders have better opporunities. If country is secured, if merchants can do their business without a fear of being kidnapped or robbed, if veterinary regulations are instituted, than trade is flourishing and commonweal is incresing.A conclusion of the World Bank research says that Somali war has its main roots neither in a warfare between clans nor in the Cold war, but in a policy of Siad Barre, who shifted from command economy to free market and economic liberalization, while still relying on the power of his own clan and fomenting rivalry between other clans. Consequences of these actions were not immediate, however in the future they have pr oved to have a devastating effect on Somalia.3.2 Militarization of societyA significant feature of Siad Barres regime (and consequently of warlordism) is a culture of militarization, something that have lasted to these days. Barres institutions had but a little legitimacy, law was rather forced by military means. After the coup in 1991, weapons could be found almost in every family, metaphorically spoken. Weapons have been used to settle quarrels between people and have even been traded on open markets. To make conditions even worse, several observes spotted that some Somali warlords are supported from the neigbouring countries, who dont seek a peaceful solution, but their own goals and interests. Main actors are Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Yemen, who deliver their weapon-cargos though ports in Boosaaso, Marha and Kismaayo24. This was a stern problem for warlords, as they slowly started to lose control over their followers, as well as clan elders has lost much of their authorit y. Law was a one big uknown. Since any accountability could be seen and impunity became common in Somalia, situation got worse very quickly. (warlords were oppressing locals, using them as a forced labour or driven them out).Without any state authority, a real power lied in the hands of those who were armed militiamen, their leaders and young men, who sought in war their own profit (these men were often rather children, as some observes estimate that about 200000 (5 %) of Somali children had been involved in militia activities).25Weapons that warlords demand and with which they fight are usually following low-cost assault rifles, pistols, hand grenades, rocket propelled grenades, mortars, heavy and medium machine guns and anti-aircraft cannons deployed in a ground-attack role. However, warlords commonly do not interfere directly with weapon traders, they rather authorize someone else to acquire merchandise for them.Luckily, in the past several years, clashes between clan-leaders a nd locals are not so frequent, but still most people keep their weapons, because they fear for their property and for their lives. This applies especially for south-central Somalia, the region without any form of effective and strong government. On the other hand, Somaliland and Puntland have made a signficant progress in demobilization, as their leaders know that without

Technological Analysis of Spain

Technological Analysis of SpainTechnological analysisSpain has been slow to adopt technological advancements comp atomic number 18d to the other European countries, plain though Spain performs well in know conductge creation, the intention temper in Spain has not been ready. The situation has occurred because of the larger role of the public sector with respect to RD development. The unavowed sector has limited participation in enhancing RD levels in the country. Spain need to unified RD policy across regions as the autonomy of regional governments with respect to the RD policy which led to lack of innovative practices. The increase in the number of authorities and the diversity of funding programs in Spain has increased the innovative system. However, the level of coordination among different levels must improve.Spain ranks sixteenth on the European innovation index in a list of 27 nations. Spain make sense expenditure on RD as a per centumage of gross domestic product stood a t around 1.2 share in 2007 to 2008. Spain has set a target to reach the RD expenditure level of 2% of GDP by 2010, which is well at a lower place the 3% target fixed by Lisbon agreement for the European nations. It is judge that Spain government under the program of INGENIO 2010 will help in altitude the unavowed sector expenditure on RD to 55% of total investment by 2010, as well as improving the overall innovation climate of Spain. Spain government has initiated measures to address the expected in innovation by revamping introducing new technologies and the educational system. The lack of innovation and entrepreneurship has emerged because of a low percentage of SMEs getting snarled in innovation and co-operation, along with the low participation of the private sector and venture capitalists. Below show the analysis of Spains technology landscape correspond to Datamonitor.Current strengthsWell- veritable ICT sectorSpain has a strong communications equipment market. The Spa nish communications equipment market generated total among of revenues of $521.2 billion in 2008, it representing a compound annual harvest-festival rate (CAGR) of 9.7 percent for the period spanning 2004 to 2008. In 2013, the Spanish communications equipment market is forecast to have a value of $577 million, an increase of 10.7 percent since 2008. Electricals and electronics retailers proved the more or less cost-effective distributors for the Spanish communications equipment market in 2008, generating total among of revenues of $249.8 million, equivalent to 47.9 percent of the markets overall value. The countrys strong communication equipment market is expected to post positive growth rates in the medium term.Well-developed rootSpain has a well-developed infrastructure to facilitate development of technology-intensive industries. Besides, the railways system is one of the best in Western Europe. Base on the Datamonitor, in 2008, the Spanish railway system covered 15,288 km, an d 8,847 km of the area which were electrified. Air and water transport are likewise well developed with around 55 state-owned general interest ports and 58 commercial airports.Current challengesGross expenditure on RD remains lowSpain total expenditure on RD (as a percentage of GDP) stood at 1.2 percent in 2007, which is much less than that of other developed nations. In comparison, Frances expenditure was 2.13 percent of the GDP, 3.18 percent in Japan, 2.68 percent for the US, and 1.8 percent for Canada during the same year. The low expenditure on RD has restricted related some activities in Spain. With the increase in the Spanish access to the European technology fund and innovation budget which aims at meeting the financing needs of research, the development and innovation of enterprises, it will be an approach in the funding of RD activities.Involvement of the private sectorThe RD activities in Spain have been led by the public sector and with a little involvement from the pri vate sector. The lack of innovation and entrepreneurship has emerged because of a low percentage of SMEs getting involved in cooperation, innovation, and the low participation of venture capitalists and the private sector. The government focused on more of the technological expansion of existing large firms rather than early stage investments for startups.Future prospectsGovernment policies promoting RDBase on the Datamonitor, Spain government has taken several(prenominal) initiatives, which include the adoption of liberal policies to promote RD activity in Spain country, and it has drawn up a new legislative framework for RD. It has been taking measures to expand the RD infrastructure and to improve the operations of all agencies involved in the system. Spain government has set a target to increase the RD expenditure (as a percentage of GDP) to 2 percent by the end of 2010, from 1.2 percent in 2007. The private sector of Spain contribution to RD expenditure is expected to be 55 per cent of total expenditure by 2010.Significant opportunities in energy and ICT sectorSpain presented significant opportunities in the ICT and emerging sectors of energy. The process of liberalization of the energy market was started in 1998 and by 2003 it brought major changes to the electrical energy sector and consumers were allowed to purchase power freely in the open market. Spain government has shifted its focus to renewable energy under the Promotion of Renewable Energy political program (2005 to 2010). Spain government also approved the Action Plan for the Spanish Strategy of Energy Efficiency to increase investment in renewable energy technology. Spain has achieved its 29.4 percent target for renewable energy in 2009, even though the target was set for 2010 by the European. Spain governments energy plans include greater faith on hydroelectricity and wind energy. In the telecoms segment, a number of IT sub sectors have been opened to private players. Mobile telephony, broadb and services and broadcast equipment (such as Wi-Fi) are the growing segments, as the sector is being gradually opened up for competition.Future risksLack of innovation and low number of patentsThe low level of innovation in Spain is influenced by the low number of patents registered. Although the number of patents is increasing, it is still far behind the levels compare with other European nations. It compares poorly to some European and developed countries, as show in the table below. A continuation of the trend is likely to hamper the scientific prospects of the country. Spain was ranked 16th according to the European mutation Scoreboard (EIS) 2008 among the list of 27 European countries. The private sector RD expenditure lags behind the European average by 45 percent and the rate of patenting is below the European average by 20 percent.

Streptococci :: essays research papers

StreptococciIn a healthy human, the internal tissues much(prenominal) as blood, brain, and muscle atomic number 18 generally free of microorganisms. On the other hand, the surface tissues, much(prenominal) as skin, all of the mucous membrane in the mouth, pinched cavity and intestinal tract can easily and readily become available for microorganism to colonize and grow. Depending on the location in the human body, disparate bacteria choose to grow on a specific location that provides the nutrition it needs, with optimum condition such as pH. There be many a nonher(prenominal) incompatible bacteria that collectively are called normal flora, and live in the human body. Many of these bacteria are commensally living in humans, and whatsoever others are symbiotic. Commensal bacteria only obtain their food from the human, and do not harm or benefit the host, on the other hand symbiots not only get their food from the host, but in return they also become beneficial to the host in p roviding nutrition that human can not make, such as vitamin K. One of the most recognized and extensively studied bacteria that often get more attention during the winter is Streptococcus. There are different strains of strep. Depending on their ability of hemolysis of blood agar, strep can be subdivided into a, b and g hemolytic (1-pp143). There are many different laboratory tests that can be done to distinguish one strep from the other. Different treatments also have been developed to fight each strain of strep.The streptococcus are a group of bacteria that infect human as well as animals. A very basic test to recognize strep is to perform blood agar plate (BAP) test. Hemolysis of the blood agar can indicate the presence of strep bacteria. Most strep bacteria are either a or b hemolytic on sheep blood agar. a-hemolytic strep partially lyses the red blood cells, creating a greenish govern just about each colony, whereas, complete lyses of blood by b-hemolytic strep create a clea r zone. g-hemolytic does not lyse red blood cells, and no change or zone is created (1-pp143). Streptococci are gram positive and exhibit purple color cocci when gram stained and observed under the microscope. Gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci have a membrane that contains a thick layer of peptidoglycan. Peptidoglycan can retain the violet blue, and does not wash off with alcohol. It grows in short chains, containing several streptococci. It looks a lot like a string of beads.

Youth Violence: The Problem is Not As Big As It Seems :: essays research papers fc

Youth Violence Reality Check The Problems Not as Big as it SeemsViolence is a never-ending chore that our society has battled with since the beginning of time. To most people, the most ridiculous and most noticeable violence is adolescent criminal offence. While these crimes committed by children and adolescents fascinate the public and stupefy a great deal of media attention, youth violence is actually less serious than reported.Fifteen people argon dead, twenty-three wounded in the strike school massacre in history.The two gunmen were dead at Columbine High in a small town Littleton,Denver (Colorado). Suspects were fascinated with W.W.II and the Nazis. April 20, 1999 Hitlers Birthday. (qtd. in Devitt)The story flashes across the television screen, floating from state to state, country to country, giving society the accusing, misinterpreted view of todays risky youths. Media reports debated for days nearly the problem of increasing teenage violence. Most reports exaggerated t hat the public was unsafe by youth lawlessness (Schwartz, Wendy). Youth violence is not as permeative as is feared (Schwartz, Wendy). The media in any case tends to point out the fact that adolescents have increased the dangerous intent of weapons. P.A. Strasburg states realistically, juvenile violence is considerably less serious in the aggregate than violence by adults (qtd. in Schwartz, individual retirement account 52).The output of the media goes straight to the public, giving society as a whole the same misperception as the media. Parents are a lot more concerned for their kids nowadays even though their kids are in a more stable environment than the parents themselves were as children (Schwartz, Ira 53). Stability through technology and general better living have given children more security. Americas adolescents are not as violent and unlawful as the public thinks (Devitt).Researchers have been finding out that both the media and the public have been exaggerating the sever ity of increasing youth violence (Miller 45). According to P.A. Strasburg, juveniles use fewer weapons and less deadly weapons and inflict less injury and financial loss on their victims then they have in the past (qtd. in Schwartz 52). Researchers also discovered that there have never been any self-contained dramatic increases of violent juvenile crime which did not parallel increases in adult crime (Miller 45). Certainly from time to time, there are strange rises in violent crime (45). But one of the main reasons is because of the number of adolescents in the population (45). The core youth population has increased by almost double the total from 1956 (45).