Why Did So Many Molonists Die at Jamestown

In a matter of four years, almost every colonist died in Jamestown. In 1607, English ships sailed Into Chesapeake bay and up the James river and later founded Jamestown in Virginia. By the Summer of 1609, 524 colonists would have arrived in Jamestown. But by 1611, more than 80% Would be dead! There are three main reasons why this could have happened. There wasn’t Enough food, the water was unusable, and they didn’t have enough workers with the right skill Set to help them survive.One of the biggest problems for the colonists is that the droughts made it hard for them to Grow crops, (Doc. B) and the food that they did have wouldn’t have been enough to last through winter. (Doc. D) from about 1607 to 1612, Jamestown suffered a horrible drought. This would have a big effect on colonists because no water means that they can’t grow crops. This would lead to starvation. Another reason they starved is because of Francis wests men took the grain loaded it onto the ships and didn’t take it back to Jamestown.(Doc. D) this is a big reason why most of them starved to death.Another big problem for the colonists is that their water was too brackish, which made it Unusable.(Doc. A) This caused many to get sick and die. The thing that caused the waters to become too salty are the tides. An event that happened two times a day. Since Human wastes wouldn’t float away down the rivers because of the tides it would just stay in the water, this caused the water to be contaminated and a major cause for disease. Water was scarce in the first Four years of living at Jamestown due to the drought.(Doc. B) This might have caused competition for water but the water that they did have would be contaminated.The last major problem for the colonists, when they came in 1607, they didn’t bring Many skillful workers. (Doc. C) More than half the people who came on the first boat Were gentlemen. They weren’t used to working with their hands so they would have been Inexperienced in doing work that involved their hands. There weren’t any apothecaries on the first boat and  there was only one surgeon. Since there wasn’t any apothecaries on the first ship anyone who needed medicine wouldn’t receive it or the right kind which could lead to death or overdose.There was only one tailor so in the winter they froze to death because he couldn’t make enough clothes for everyone who needed it. Overall not having these skillful workers on the first trip over played somewhat a major role in the death of so many colonists at Jamestown.Out of the many reasons for the deaths at Jamestown the three biggest reasons being they didn’t have enough food, brackish water, and not having enough skillful workers played a Great role in the deaths of so many colonists at Jamestown.

Examine Marxist views of the role of the family Essay

Marxist is a perspective view that society is built as class conflict between the Capitalist who own the means of production and the working class. Capitalists believe that there is are three functions of the family: Inheritance of property; ideology functions and unit of consumptions. Marxists say that the family benefits capitalist. Marxists say that one role or functions of the family is inheritance of property. The Bourgeoisie own the means of production whereas the working class just work for the capitalist and own no means of production. The Capitalist want to keep control of the means of production and the only way they can do this is by inheritance of property, which means that all the property is handed down to the first son. A Marxist sociologist, Engles, says this explains the rise in monogamist marriages as marriage makes sure there is a legitimate heir. This is why families are important as it helps maintain a capitalist society. Another role or function the family has i s an ideology function. Ideology function means a set of beliefs and ideas that the capital is a dominant class and that the equality is right and just. The family helps keep this idea by primary socialisation of the young and children being brought up learning these ideas that Capitalism is right. This helps maintain capitalism because children will eventually become the next labour force for capitalists. The last role of the family is that it is a unit of consumption which means that Capitalist own the production and the working class are wanting for Capitalist as well as buying from them. This helps maintain capitalism, which is a family’s main role or function, because they are buying from capitalism and they would benefit. Feminist would criticise Marxist by saying that the family benefit men and men only, causing aoppression for women. Functionalist would criticise the Marxist view that the family benefits Capitalist. They believe that society is based or a value consensus. And that the family benefits society as well as its individual members.

Background check of hiring employee Essay Example for Free

Background check of hiring employee Essay In nowadays, background check of hiring employee is practicing by almost all agencies. Point is that, the skills of the applicant can be, somehow, figured out. It is much more difficult to assess the level of trust, honesty, mental toughness, and loyalty. Reading through chapter 9, and conducting a slight research, my answers to the questions of the given scenario are as follows: 1.Do temporary agencies have a â€Å"duty† to run background checks? If so, did Robert half â€Å"breach that duty?† Why or Why not? According to the law of negligence, temporary agencies should follow the duty policy on background check on pre-employment, in order not to satisfy an element of negligence. In case of Robert Half International Inc., and Fox Associates, Inc., I don’t think, that duty was breached, the company trusted to provided information by Ms. Ross about herself, and she got good recommendations from her former employers. At some extend, it is a background check. 2.The court ruled against Fox Associates. Was the court correct? Do you think Fox should have done its own background check? Why or Why not? I agree with the court decision, that it was determined that duty is not breached, because it happened unknowingly. Even though the company recommended the employee, Fox could do its own background check as well. 3.The fact pattern mentions that Sunbeam suffered similar damages when it failed to do its own background check on Mr. Dunlap, its former CEO. Who was more at fault, Sunbeam or the Executive search agency? In this case, the fault has an Executive search agency more, than Sunbeam, as it its straight duty to check background before approve for hiring. However, Sunbeam is liable for its losses also, because it should request and check the information about hiring employer. 4.Strategically and legally speaking, why do you think the former employers said nothing about Ms. Ross’ history and gave her good recommendations? There could be some reasons: 1). the former employers might feel sympathetic towards Ms. Ross, and they don’t believe that she has stolen any funds; 2) Ms. Ross, indeed a good specialist in her field; and the last 3) The former employers just didn’t tell the truth. 5.Develop one  unique background check policies for your company on employees hired through a search firm or temp agency. The main idea on background check which I’d like to develop, besides gathering information, confirmation of address, criminal records searches, is that pre-employee will answer some â€Å"simple† questions, which will ask him/her the same, but in different manner, and maybe I would add some psychological tests, which will let me know if that employee was capable to do something unethical in his past work experience. Background check of hiring employee. (2017, Feb 12).

Rise of the Labor Movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Rise of the Labor Movement - Essay Example The Industrial Revolution marked a fundamental transition of American economic life from rural to urban (http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm). It fueled the growth of America's cities, as factories sprang up in key navigational areas such as port towns and river junctures in order to have ready access to the raw materials needed to manufacture products. These factories were made possible by innovative American inventors, such as Eli Whitney, who devised machines that facilitated mass production of goods for the first time in the history of the world. Thus, the Industrial Revolution not only started a shift of the American economy from agriculture to manufacturing and rural to urban centered, but it also heavily influenced a similar fundamental transition in other nations that would come to be known as the "industrialized world." The America of today would never have existed had the Industrial Revolution not occurred. While America most certainly would have become more industrialized over time, the birth of industry that occurred in the United States positioned America to assume the leadership of the economically developed world. Today, American life reflects that reality, as Americans enjoy a high standard of living and a suburban lifestyle whose roots can be traced directly back to the Industrial Revolution. One of the effects

Implement a marketing solution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Implement a marketing solution - Essay Example It involves almost every aspect f what is going on in a company. Production and marketing are both fundamental economic activities. Production involves making goods, such as manufacturing a product, and / or performing services, such as providing repair services for those products. In marketing, you must plan and coordinate a great many activities in order to reach customers and compel them to purchase, use and repurchase your product. While it is true for a business to be successful the product must sell, they do not sell themselves, and marketing is just as necessary as production. Marketing insures that the right goods and services are produced. Production and marketing work together to satisfy human needs. This strategy, if successful, will benefit your company. Marketing is an all-encompassing activity. It is something that eventually touches everyone and it dramatically affects peoples' daily lives. No one in America is untouched by some form f marketing. Marketing is important to every consumer. Everyone, at one time will buy or use a product or service. Consumers are actively involved in performing marketing. Their needs drive the marketing responses f many organizations. Consumers also provide marketing information to organizations wishing to serve them better. What is a marketing mix and what are the four P's that form a marketing mix A marketing mix is the combination f marketing actions that make up a marketing program. The marketing mix principles are used by business as tools to assist them in pursuing their objectives. The marketing mix principles are controllable variables, which have to be carefully managed and must meet the needs f the defined target group. The four P's f marketing are: PRODUCT PRICE PLACE PROMOTION Product The product is the heart and soul f any marketing program. If the product is good, the marketing program has a chance for success, but if the product is bad, no marketing program can make the product a winner. Product designing, developing, maintaining, and improving are all important aspect to be considered in your marketing mix. A company must always be on the lookout for new products, redesigning existing products, or killing existing ones. The goal must be to keep the customer seeing your product, as special, and to insure that they are champions for your product. The target customer's needs must be met. Naming the product, labeling and packaging all go into your product development. Life Cycle f a Product All products pass through a life cycle -- from introduction and growth to maturity and decline. All

3 reflection questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

3 reflection questions - Assignment Example The video enriched the coaching session between Ms. Wessling and her principal by enabling discussion and comparison of personal opinion and perspectives of what they have observed. Her principal emphasized that one of the advantages of using video in the classroom is for teachers to be self-reflective and to be open-minded to bring out what they have done to talk about it. Using video in practice can also be a way to improve our practice as it offers a certain degree of reality. There might be a difference between what is planned in the abstract of practice and the concrete of reality; thus, video exposes of what is intrinsically natural to teachers. I could record my own practice using three different means: (1) reflective journal, (2) voice recording, (3) video recording, and (4) used of evaluation tool. Just like Ms. Wessling’s rationale, the used of notes or reflective journal will help me to record concretely record my practice and permits expression of personal opinion and observation. The voice recording tool will help me analyze the modulation of my voice and how interesting my voice is to my students if I will be the listener. Sometimes, the manner or quality of teacher’s voice affects engagement of the students in the lesson and this voice quality cannot be best evaluated in a video. Thus, I will also use video recording to have a holistic view of the classroom – management, interaction, and mannerisms in teaching. Lastly, I added the used of evaluation tool in order to systematically and quantitatively support findings from other means of recording

The Marketing of Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Marketing of Services - Essay Example In addition, the economic down turn in the United Kingdom and the rest of the world caused increased levels of uncertainty and unemployment among the potential customers. The impact was a reduction in the consumption of the discretionary services offered by the enterprises in the sector. These changes in consumer behavior have affected several music retailers further aggravating the decline that was being experienced in an already underperforming sector. Prior to the financial crisis, various industry players had been facing financial difficulties due to the shifting interest of consumers from the musical services to computer games. However, things look bright as the sector continues to recover albeit at a slow pace. In the music retail industry, there are several retailers and enterprises covering the entire United Kingdom. They include single stores, independent outlets and chains of retail stores. This gives a wonderful mix of shops dealing in a variety of services. Services like instrument hire, music recording, repair of educational establishments, music teaching and site music facilities are offered in the shops. Some of the major competitors include Asda Group limited, HMV, Woolworth Group Plc, Virgin Books Ltd and Play.com. Others are AA Music, Academy Chimes Music and Ackerman Music Limited. Most of these retailers have been affected by the recent decline in purchases. HVM remains the leading retailer in the United Kingdom. Just like any other service sector, the music retail industry faces a number of problems coming from the nature of services which are offered (Dotchin & Oakland 2004). The five service characteristics are helpful in understanding some of these major problems. Perishability is perhaps one of the most difficult characteristic of the services in this sector to appreciate (Porters 2005). Services are highly perishable compered to physical products. This can be best understood when one considers the kind of services that enterprises such

Are the American realist & naturalist writers breaking away from Essay - 1

Are the American realist & naturalist writers breaking away from Romantic literary tradition, or are these later writers still infusing the Romantic spirit - Essay Example Both Lowell and Hawthorne came from a rich cultural ancestry. Both wanted to respect their ancestors, yet both writers also felt their ancestors had committed crimes which Hawthorne and Lowell were being held responsible for. Just as Hawthorne’s fiction expresses his dichotomous feelings towards his ancestral legacy, as is seen in the first chapter of The Scarlet Letter, so, too, does Robert Lowell’s poetry exemplify his controversial feelings towards his ancestral legacy, as is shown in the poem â€Å"At the Indian Killer’s Grave.† The romantic period in American literature may be said to have started with the independence of United States from the European colonialism. Europe’s literary styles and forms continued to influence many American writers during the early romantic period. During this period most of the American writers magnificently praised the beauty of American countrysides and American literature generally symbolized the optimism of an emerging nation. The puritan traditions and upbringing that had influenced Hawthorne in his early years is clearly visible in his work, which explains and often dictates the ‘appropriate’ behavior of his characters. We often see that his characters wear a make-believe image that can be seldom expected from the real world that the modern world is exposed to. In particular, Hawthorne’s feminine characters are influenced by puritan beliefs that mandate them to behave in a particular fashion that is appropriate in the society. Hawthorne’s female characters are ideally stifled and restrained and Hawthorne is not happy about women asserting themselves in public life. Many critics believe that the efforts of Hawthorne have been to provide America with its own genuine romantic literary traditions. We can see that his obsessions with romanticism and his ardent need to provide a literary culture to America that can be

Sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sociology - Essay Example Adolescent substance abuse can be defined as the use of a drug or chemical â€Å"that modifies the mood or behavior of the user† by which, â€Å"the user’s functioning is negatively affected† (Lewis, Dana and Blevins, 2009, p.4). Substance abuse is also different from addiction in that when addiction is there, the person shows â€Å"physical symptoms of withdrawal or tolerance to the substance† (Lewis, Dana and Blevins, 2009, 4). Any deviant behavior is proven to have â€Å"multiple causes† (Isralowitz and Singer, 2009, 10). The causes of adolescent substance abuse are understood to have developed from a â€Å"complex interaction of interpersonal, social and developmental factors† (Lorion, 1990, p.203). Developmental factors are supposed to be the most important causes for this problem, as puberty will bring in many physical changes, along with changes in thinking, self-image and self-esteem (Lorion, 1990, p.203). Though it is very difficult to list all the causes involved, it is approved by all that substance abuse results in serious health problems in adolescents (Isralowitz and Singer, 1983, p.1). Prevention, early identification, intervention, and maintaining of corrected behavior are the steps in treating this kind of deviance (Isralowitz and Singer, 1983, p.1).

Lack of Communication Essay Example for Free

Lack of Communication Essay Lack of communication is the number one cause in divorces in the United States, while there are marriages that work out there are many that don’t. For every two marriages there has been one divorce in the 21st century. (Britannica) Often in a relationship we don’t consider the small things and we move to quickly not thinking about the opinion of the people we interact with. In this article by Aziza Shumba she gives very clear, concise details on why communication is important in a relationship. An interesting fact I happened to stumble upon while reading was that a lack of communication can affect all aspects of life, from what you like to wear to what color paint you paint your home. Some couples feel like they communicate but the key is communicating effectively. Communicating effectively means communicating thoroughly, being optimistic, keeping an open mind and having a listening ear to new opinions. This is very important when it comes to using it in the work place, considering many people just go along with what they are told and never speak unless spoken to. In the work place many people have usually one of three issues: they never speak their opinion, the person who is overbearing, or the person who rides both sides of the fence, it doesn’t make a situation easier but it does make it easier when you can talk to someone and they can keep a conversation without criticism, ignorance or pessimistic attitudes. This is also a great way to build a better relationship with the ones you work with by giving you a stronger confidence when speaking and communicating. Although effective communication is very important, planning and time management is very important when communicating with people. I figured out this is very important once I got to college because if you don’t have good time management it will disrupt your whole life schedule and those around you. For example if I decide to wait until the last minute to turn in homework at 11:55 at night, and then my computer cord blows and catches my computer on fire, what would I do? I would have to wait until I could get access to another computer, and by the time I get to another computer the assignment would be late. Planning in a marriage can definitely be a â€Å"killer† when it comes to marriages, the wife may unexpectedly become pregnant or he/she may decide to get a dog/cat without the other partners consent. If communication is not laid down in the beginning these things may come to be a surprise to the other partner which will lead to divorce and strife. In a marriage getting a life plan is important, even if it is not set in stone it is considerably useful in the progression of a stable marriage to have an outline of what the couple wants together. In conclusion, a lack of communication can lead to the building of other skills if it is caught early on, as long as communication is effective and you have a plan for life and use effective time management you should be able to build STRONG communication skills to help you in everyday life.

Differences Between Jealousy Of Men Than For Women

Differences Between Jealousy Of Men Than For Women Research is growing to find if there is a difference among men and women when perceiving jealousy. Specifically emotional reactions to a romantic partners infidelity, with men being more upset by a partners sexual infidelity and women being more upset by a partners emotional infidelity (Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, and Gladue, 1994; Buss, Larsen, Weston, and Semmekoth, 1992; Buunk, Angleitner, Oubaid, and Buss, 1996). However, there is an ongoing discussion as how best to interpret these gender differences, with theorists falling largely into one of the groups: 1) those that view jealousy as an evolved sexual adaptive solution of paternal uncertainty and 2) those who view jealousy as a general social cognition emotion. The main difference in the groups is that those in the first groups focus is on distal explanations of jealousy while those in the second groups focus on proximal explanations of jealousy. In addition, the groups differ in their apprehension of how the mind works, with those in the first group adopting a modular view (Toobey and Cosmides,1992) and those in the second group adopting a general processor view. Theorists in the first group share the conjecture that jealousy is an entity that evolved to explain the specific problem of mate preservation (Daly, Wilson, and Weghorst, 1982). They proclaim that different jealousy responses evolved as a consequence of the fact that ancestral men and women faced unique reproductive challenges. Due to concealed fertilization, men could never be certain that they were genetically related to any children born to their mate. This paternity uncertainty was the greatest reproductive challenge faced by ancestral men. Consequently, selection pressures favored ancestral men who responded with jealousy to signals of a partners sexual infidelity because by doing so they decreased their likelihood of being cuckolded. Women should be less upset than men to signals of a partners sexual infidelity because ancestral women did not face the problem of cuckoldry. However, ancestral women faced a unique reproductive challenge not shared by ancestral men, in that they had to eat a very high calorie diet to meet the energy demands associated with pregnancy and lactation. Consequently, selection pressures favored ancestral women who responded with jealousy to signals of a mates diversion of resources because by doing so they increased the likelihood that they would have the caloric intake sufficient to maintain a healthy pregnancy and an adequate production of breast milk. Buss et al. (1992) argue that the single most consistent indicator to ancestral women that they were in danger of losing a partners resources was if their partner was developing an emotional attachment to another woman, because this emotional attachment signaled his willingness to invest resources in this other woman and her offspring. This theory uses the support from the study that found the sex difference in jealousy evolved through anger or acts of aggressive displayed by men who were evoked by jealous tendencies (Daly and Wilson, 1988), men also use violence to control the sexual behavior of their partner (Daly and Wilson, 1988). In a critical report the findings showed that, when forced to decide if a romantic partners sexual infidelity or emotional infidelity upset them more, women were found to choose emotional infidelity over sexual infidelity, in contrast men found sexual infidelity to be more upsetting (Buss, Larsen, Weston, and Semmelroth, 1992). The results found by this study have been replicated and used the same forced choice method. Although the studies have been supported, there have been studies have reported the opposite results. Theorists in the second group direct their focus on the social cognition and are not limited to romantic partners. Such as, one could feel jealousy over a sibling receiving more affection from the parent or a coworker receiving more praise from a boss. Harris (2003) disputes that jealousy is trigged by the initial feeling a threat to a relationship but that the exact nature and extent of the emotional reaction is determined by the cognitive assessment of the threat. Using this perspective, sex differences can be determined by the cognitive assessments about threats to a romantic relationship. According to Salovey and Rodin, their domain hypothesis suggests that people will have greater feeling of jealousy of individuals that they see to be more superior to them in domains that are highly relevant (1984). A partners attraction to a rival not only points towards a potential of a relationship but also represents a threat to self-esteem, because a partners choice of a rival suggests his/ her superiority. Further research of social cognitive perspective suggests sex differences in jealousy are consequences of differences in logical inferences men and women conclude about the extent sexual infidelity implies the emotional infidelity or how emotional infidelity implies sexual infidelity. This idea is supported by research conduct by Harris and Christenfeld (1996) and DeSteno and Salovey (1996) that people perceive men are more likely than women to have sexual infidelity when there is a lack of an emotional attachment but think that men are less likely than women to form an emotional attachment in a nonsexual relationship. The research includes that these assumptions are what contribute people to believe that a womans sexual infidelity signifies her emotional infidelity while a mans emotional infidelity signifies his sexual infidelity. Consequently, the gender difference as to which type of infidelity is worse is based on a gender difference as to which type of infideli ty implies the occurrence of the other. The purpose of this study is to examine further the role of those who view jealousy as a general social cognition emotion as a proximal explanation for gender differences in jealousy. This study will combine both approaches presented above, but will change the person that the partners imagined infidelity occurs. If jealousy is a domain specific response designed to prevent cuckoldry for men and prevent resource diversion for women, then the person who the partner commits the infidelity should have no impact on jealousy. In contrast, if jealousy is a general emotional reaction to threatened relations based on social cognition then the person the partner commits infidelity should have an impact on jealousy. Methods Participants Participants will be roughly 200 women and 200 men enrolled at Central Washington University. The selection will be random. The demographics of Central Washington University include 10,282 first-time degree seeking students. 7556 White, non-Hispanic, 805 Hispanic, 642 Asian or Pacific Islander, 416 Race/ethnicity unknown, 349 Black, non-Hispanic, 286 American Indian or Alaska Native, and 228 Nonresident aliens. 4,555 men and 4,650 women. All these students are enrolled full-time. This information was gathered from the Central Washington University site for academic year 2009. Materials Following a method described by DeSteno, Bartlett, Braverman, Salovey (2003), participants rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale how much they felt each of six emotions (angry, jealous, calm, threatened, relieved, and hurt) in response to each scenario in the first test procedure. For the second test the forced-choice measure will be used and is similar to those used in previous research investigating sex differences in jealousy resulting from sexual and emotional infidelity (Buss et al., 1992; Buunk et al., 1996; DeSteno Salovey, 1996). Individuals were asked to indicate which of the following two events would cause them more distress: (a) finding out that ones partner had passionate sexual intercourse with another person or (b) finding out that ones partner had formed a deep emotional attachment to another person. Participants will also complete two versions of this scale that will ask for their responses to the same instances of sexual and emotional infidelity, respectively. On this measure, participants were presented with specific statements to which they responded using a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with the middle point indicating neither agreement nor disagreement. Procedure Participants will report in small groups of no more than twenty to an assigned room, once groups are in their assigned room, they will be informed that the study of the relation between personal character and habits that occur in the context of a romantic relationship. Similar to the procedure used by Buss, Larsen, Westen, and Semmelroth (1992), participants will be instructed to, Please think of a serious committed romantic relationship that you currently have, have had in the past, or would like to have in the future. Next the participants will be asked to imagine four separate scenarios in which this partner is unfaithful. The scenarios will describe either sexual infidelity, Imagine your partner enjoying sexual intercourse with someone else, or emotional infidelity, Imagine you partner falling in love with someone else. The wording in the scenarios will be modeled after items used by Pietrzak Laird, Stevens, and Thompson (2002). To measure more than the type of infidelity the per son with whom the partner committing an infidelity will be manipulated. Participants will be asked to imagine their partner falling in love with a close friend or falling in love with your boss. Equally, participants will be asked to imagine their partner enjoying sexual intercourse with a close friend or enjoying sexual intercourse with their boss. The next test will be presented to participants with two forced choice problem in which they will have to select one of two infidelity scenarios as more upsetting. In one problem, participants will have to choose between their partners emotional infidelity with an unknown person and their partners sexual infidelity with an unknown person. In the next present problem, participants will have to choose between their partners emotional infidelity with someone that is known (such as, friend, coworker, etc.) and their partners sexual infidelity with someone that is known.

Donald Trump Promotes Classical Liberalism Essay -- Classical Liberali

Classical liberalism was the dominant ideology of capitalism during the periods of eighteenth century. It view was widely accepted. It said that government should just sit back and watch business so they do not cheat the government also to enforce contracts. The classical had many creeds they were Psychological, economic, and ,political. Each view has its own points. In this paper I will discuss those points and show you how Donald Trump is a classical liberalist. Psychological creed of classical liberalism is based on four assumptions of human nature. People were believed to be egoistic, coldly calculating, essential inert, and atomistic. Hobbes a economics argued that people were motivated by the desire for pleasure and to avoid pain. Jeremy Bentham believed pleasure differ in intensity but there was no qualitative difference. He argued that "quality of pleasure being equal, to a pushpin is as good as poetry," The theory he is trying to say about human motivation is that the we are lazy and selfish. A big part of classical liberalism is that we are coldly calculating. Being coldly calculating means that when a situation comes about we dissever what will make us receive less pain and more pleasure. Although the human motivation is by pleasure it is the decision that are cold, selfish, dispassionate, and rational assessment of the situation to choose how to avoid the pain and receive the pleasure. The emphasis on the importance of rational measurement... Donald Trump Promotes Classical Liberalism Essay -- Classical Liberali Classical liberalism was the dominant ideology of capitalism during the periods of eighteenth century. It view was widely accepted. It said that government should just sit back and watch business so they do not cheat the government also to enforce contracts. The classical had many creeds they were Psychological, economic, and ,political. Each view has its own points. In this paper I will discuss those points and show you how Donald Trump is a classical liberalist. Psychological creed of classical liberalism is based on four assumptions of human nature. People were believed to be egoistic, coldly calculating, essential inert, and atomistic. Hobbes a economics argued that people were motivated by the desire for pleasure and to avoid pain. Jeremy Bentham believed pleasure differ in intensity but there was no qualitative difference. He argued that "quality of pleasure being equal, to a pushpin is as good as poetry," The theory he is trying to say about human motivation is that the we are lazy and selfish. A big part of classical liberalism is that we are coldly calculating. Being coldly calculating means that when a situation comes about we dissever what will make us receive less pain and more pleasure. Although the human motivation is by pleasure it is the decision that are cold, selfish, dispassionate, and rational assessment of the situation to choose how to avoid the pain and receive the pleasure. The emphasis on the importance of rational measurement...

Comparing Natural Law to Legal Realism in the case of Carlton versus Wa

In the case of Carlton vs. Walkovzsky, I will discuss facts, main legal issues, majority decisions and reasons for the dissent. This case took place on September 26, 1966 in the court of Appeals of New York. Judge Fuld J wrote the majority decision, while Judge Keating wrote the dissenting decision in the case. I will be applying Natural Law and Legal Realism to the case to argue my position, and ultimately prove that the theory of Natural Law is more applicable to the case. According to the facts in this case, Walkovszky was hit by a cab four years ago in New York and the cab was negligently operated by defendant Marches. The defendant Carlton, who is being sued, owned and ran the cab company in which he set up ten corporations, including Seon. Each of the corporations had two cabs registered in its name. The minimum automobile liability insurance required by the law was $10,000. According to the opinion of the court the plaintiff asserted that he is also ?entitled to hold their stock holder personally liable for damages, because multiple corporate structures constitutes an unlawful attempt to defraud the general member of the public.? The main legal issue before the court arises, in determining whether liability should be extended to reach assets beyond those belonging to the corporation and whether the corporate veil should be pierced with regard to personal liability to others. Judge Flud wrote the majority decision in the case, and found that Carlton was not personally liable for the damages to Walkovszky. Flud also found that in his reasoning, Walkovsky has ?failed to state a valid cause of action against defendant Carlton?. Flud states that if the corporation ... ...ook at the fact that he had enough money to put forward to his liability insurance. However, he chose not to and he stayed with the minimum amount, which Carlton knew would not be enough to cover any sufficient damages of an injury. In referring Legal Realism to this case, Legal Realism can be defined as the way judges formulate law from their own personal conception of justice, not from precedent or rules. Each decision involves a personal choice. Judge Flud gave the majority decision in the case and his decision is that Carlton came from a higher background. Flud?s background already holds a high status in society, therefore it affected his decision in the case in favor of Carlton and not Walkovszky. This higher status enabled Fuld to appreciate Carlton?s perspective and what it might mean if Walkovszky was able to piece the corporate veil.

Colonial Rule of the Dominican Republic Essay -- History Historical Do

In The Beginning The first instance of colonialism forced upon the inhabitants of the Dominican Republic was the â€Å"discovery† by Christopher Columbus on October 12, 1492. Ernesto Sagas and Orlando Inoa presented the interaction in their book The Dominican People: A Documentary History. The confrontation between these two diametrically opposed cultures proved to be â€Å"far from equal; the Amerindians’ Stone Age culture was no match for European military technology. The initial encounter took place on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, part of which is now the Dominican Republic† (Inoa pg. 1). This was the first step in a trek through five and a half centuries of Dominican Republic history, and unfortunately much of it was filled with the horror of colonialism. In fact, the Dominican Republic became the â€Å"hub† for the colonization of the America’s, and acted as the stepping-stone for European colonizers into a vast, never before exploited goldmine for both natural and human resources. As Sagas and Inoa discuss, the island of Hispaniola, "became the center of the Spanish colonial enterprise in the New World. It was in Hispaniola where the first major contacts between Europeans and Amerindians took place, where the first exploitative economic activities in the New World were developed, where Europeans first established permanent settlements and colonial institutions, and where the stage was set for the colonization of the rest of the New World (Inoa pg. 1.)." Thus the groundwork was established for colonialism not only for the Dominican Republic, but for the entire hemisphere. According to Sagas and Inoa, colonization was inevitable because interaction with Europeans was predictable. They wrote, â€Å"[i]f Christopher Columbus had... ...l developments taking place in the Eurasian land mass. The encounter was far from equal;† (Inoa pg. 1). It began as an unequal interaction, and has remained to this day a relationship of aggressor versus defender. Bibliography The Center for Strategic Studies. Dominican Action—1965: Intervention or Cooperation?. Washington, D.C.: The Center for Strategic Studies, 1966. Chester, Eric Thomas. The U.S. Intervention in the Dominican Republic, 1965-66: Rag-Tags, Scum, Riff-Raff, and Commies. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2001 Inoa, Orlando, and Sagas, Ernesto. The Dominican People: A Documentary History. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2003. Lundahl, Mats, and Lundius, Jan. Peasants and Religion: A socioeconomic study of Dios Olivorio and the Palma Sola Movement in the Dominican Republic. New York: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group, 2000.

Discuss Issues of Equality and Diversity and Ways to Promote Inclusion with Your Learners Essay

A teacher must have the ability to promote inclusion, equality and diversity into all of his or her sessions. Thus acknowledging and respecting individuals learning needs and giving support and assistance where and when necessary. A student is entitled to be part of the learning cycle without being treat differently to other learners, regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, religion, disability or sexual orientation. A student should feel that they are being treat equally to other learners within the classroom setting and are an integral part of the group. However, a teacher should continually monitor students and be able to identify the diverse needs of individuals and offer support without favouritism. They should be aware of any learners that seem isolated or may be feeling they are being treat differently whether it be by the teacher or other learners. If this situation occurs, the tutor should be approachable so the student can address any issues regarding equality or if necessary be able to refer the situation on to a higher position such as course leader. There are key pieces of legislation that a teacher needs to be aware of that are relevant, such as the Disability Discrimination Act (2005), Race Relations Act (1976) and Sex Discrimination Act (1975). These are to ensure that non of the groups mention are treat unfavourably or differently from others. A teacher needs to take the lead in promoting equal opportunities and needs to examine their own manner and behaviour and make sure they are non-discriminatory. This will encourage learners to act accordingly and where necessary challenge students who do not and their behaviour adversely affects others within the group. A teacher needs to promote inclusivity, ‘†¦involving all learners in relevant activities rather than excluding them for any reason either directly or indirectly. ’ (Gravells, 2008). There are certain factors that need to be taken into account to promote inclusivity, such as the physical environment to ensure those with physical disabilities can access the area where learning takes place. When teaching students with learning difficulties it may be necessary to rely on more visual aids for them to understand the material and cut the session into shorter chunks to accommodate their reduced attention span. When there are issues with challenging behaviour within the classroom, it is essential that ground rules are set early on in the course which allows students to take ownership and teachers should give positive reinforcement when they are adhered to, to encourage good behaviour. Positive reinforcement also works well when trying to boost a student’s confidence, group work may also help those with lack of confidence instead of individual work. A teacher also needs to be aware of the diverse individual needs of his or her students, being able to support them in their learning. This can help the student feel included within the classroom setting as they are not falling behind in their work and are equal to the abilities of their peers. This can be offered by one-to-one tutorial sessions or suggesting a mentor for the student to help with their work. There are many issues that need to be taken into account when ensuring that all students will have an effective learning experience. A teacher needs to ensure that the learning needs of all students are met to encourage learning.

Reflective Essay on Management of Urinary Incontinence

There are many elderly clients quietly enduring continence issues, believing that frequency, urgency, and incontinence is an inevitable part of aging. Advanced practice nurses can play a significant role in discovering continence problems (Lea R. et. al. 2007). Urinary incontinence is defined as the complaint of any involuntary leakage of urine(International Continence Society,1997). A thorough physical assessment and evaluation is necessary to identify the problem at the early stage and to ensure its necessary management.In my placement area I found many residents either with urinary catheter or using incontinence pads. That is suffering from this problem. Thus I selected this as one of my learning outcome. I choose Gibbs Reflective cycle 1988 to write this reflective essay on assessment and management of urinary incontinence. This model of reflection allows me to evaluate and analyse my own experiences to bring out new learning and changes.DESCRIPTIONWhen I started my clinical prac tice I identified there are lot of elderly people with the complaint of urinary incontinence.It is important that incontinence be treated since it impacts not only the physiological, but also the psychological realms of a person's life. Depression and decreed quality of life have been found to co-occur in the person struggling with incontinence (Barbara Ann,2003). The most important effect of incontinence reported in men was â€Å"being out of control† while most women considered â€Å"feeling impelled to take several precautions† to be the most important consequence of UI (Doreth et al,2006). In my placement area I noticed that most of the patients with parkinson’s disease also suffer from the problem of urinary incontinence.When I searched in the literature ,a study by Dr. Vaughan points out that those with Parkinson’s disease usually experience urgency and incontinence as a common problem. When I started my placement , Mrs . X who was suffering from Pa rkinsonism since 5 years and dementia since 2 years was on Indwelling urinary catheter for the management of urinary incontinence. Adhering to the results from the literature review I planned for initiating several steps to control incontinence in Mrs. x. My mentor was always with me with full support and guidelines.FLUIDmanagement was the first step started. An input output chart was kept and well maintained. Then steps wre also taken to manage constipation. Exercises were the last method practiced and the final result was really appreciable as she got a great reduction in the incontinence rate.FEELINGSAfter the experience I felt so glad and proud to myself as it was a great success towards its end. In the beginning, during the time of planning I thought it may be bit difficult for a patient with parkinsonism and dementia to make follow our instructions and continue till the end of this practice.But when we started the programme her response was so nice that she found very cooperat ive and understanding. This made me more happy and I tried my level best to make every interaction to bring out something positive. I always tried to keep good inter personal relationship with the patient by using the different techniques of communication.EVALUATIONEven though I felt some difficulties during the beginning, as a whole I could feel a progressive response in my patient. My mentor was there with me when I felt some problems and helped me a lot to overcome all those.  She gave me more resources to manage difficult situations and it was really beneficial. I realised proper delegation of duties is necessary for a better implementation and also learned about the factors to be considered while delegating the duties and responsibilities.ANALYSISActually the experience was beneficial to me in different ways. First and foremost I could upgrade my level of knowledge. I read different journal articles and each one was a big store of new knowledge for me. I learned about the dif ferent techniques of management of urinary incontinence.  I could also understand the importance of behavioural intervention in the management of incontinence. I could understand some of my weak points and my mentor helped me to improve them.CONCLUSIONUrinary incontinence is a disease condition which not only affects the physiology of a patient but also affects his psychological status and needs a continuous assessment and evaluation. It is very clear that practice can make a difficult problem more easy and manageable.ACTION PLANMaintain proper fluid balance  Assess and find out the symptoms of constipation at an early stage and manage it effectively Maintain a regular assessment of urinary incontinence and record each incidence if possible Understand the importance of communication and the positive effects of it. Keep a therapeutic relationship with the patient. Utilise the resources like man, money and material in the best effective manner Plan with the patient to ensure his c ooperation and win his confidence Support and encourage the co-workers as and when required Evaluate and record each days progress so as to have best result at the end.

Physiological Cost of War

The main concern before the Iraq adventure, in the United States revolved around the almost forgotten veterans of the Vietnam War who had at one time put their lives in harms way and were still paying the price and coping with persistent dysfunction. These veteran’s health care problems and the provision of proper resources and services for these aging men were proving to be an irritant of the bygone days, and then the Gulf War came to us; or rather we went to it with open arms.The wheel has turned full circle once again and today a whole new and young generation of veterans has come to replace the old veterans before they are all gone into the pages of history. Perhaps this new problem of new health care issues that has been forced on our conscious may also make us spare a few thoughts for our older veterans. They are still reeling from the psychological harm done to them ages ago and perhaps this will serve as a notice to us that in all probability, the new generation of vet erans will also carry similar scars into their and our futures too.They have done their part and we must not forget to do ours, by taking care of them and by not forgetting them as we forgot some of the old ones. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder It was â€Å"Shell Shock† in World War 1 and â€Å"Combat Neurosis† in World War 11 and now it is PTSD. Since the evolution of mankind there have been battles and wars and irrespective of their outcomes, they have had all types of long terms effects on mankind and the American Psychiatric Association have finally recognized it as â€Å"Anxiety Disorder† and termed it as PTSD.Let us hope and pray that there are no more future wars and this scourge does not have to be redefined any more and given another fancy name. PTSD, as we shall call it by its current term is a result of traumas, and usually after an individual goes through one; it sets in within a few months and lasts several years or even lifetimes. Usually in wars so ldiers and civilians are often subjected to violence and brutalities during battles and wars while participating in them or even witnessing them and these experiences causes’ traumas.PTSD however, may also be caused by non-combat incidents of violence and brutality towards civilians and combatants, with many veterans never having been aggressive yet suffering from profound feeling of guilt just because of their having been associated with such acts. It has however to be noted that violence in warfare is clearly the reason for triggering PTSD.The symptoms for PTSD can vary like the re-experiencing of traumatic events, such as flashbacks or intrusive thoughts, nightmares, obsessive recollections, avoidance symptoms like fear of being with people, signs of hyper arousal like easily being startled or irritated, increased arousal, avoidance of experiences or people who trigger memories of such events, nervousness, over-reaction to sudden noise, difficult in sleeping, cold sweats, nightmares, difficulty in relating emotionally to others, bouts of rage with depressions, depressions, feelings of extreme alienation and meaningless, isolation from people, in extreme cases thoughts of murder or suicide etc. For these symptoms to develop, it can take anything from a few months to years to reach the stage where it is fully blown up. As soldiers are led to believe that admission of bad feelings are signs of weakness, their superiors usually discourage them from seeking professional help and thereby making it difficult to identify PTSD timely.To improve the quality of their lives and their interests, soldiers should take care of themselves as best as they can and not succumb to peer pressure, and seek help from a qualified mental health professional. PTSD can be treated through therapy, medication or a combination of both (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder). Health Care of Veterans The principle responsibility for the provision of health care for veterans is with the Dep artment of Defense (DOD) and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). The individuals entitled to receive medical care and rehabilitation services are either from the regular military, National Guards or from the reservists, however, their benefits, treatment and the services they avail differ in some ways.The designated agencies and institutions that take care specifically of the health problems and disabilities which arise during or after having returned from active duty of veterans do not provide their services to the general public. Risk of Veterans A number of studies have reported that serious flaws are existing in the response these veterans are getting from the nation. The collection and reporting of the veteran’s occupational and environmental health and safety (OEHS) is not being recorded properly and the utilization of data is at times critically wrong in identifying the exposures that had put the members of the armed services at risk. The correct knowledge of such exposures is vitally important for proper diagnosis and treatment and veterans at times at risk of negative health effects and even of becoming disabled.Recommendations in this regard have already been made to the Department of Defense and the Department of Veterans Affairs, which have also been largely accepted by them. It is necessary that the Department of Veterans Affairs puts in place procedures to hold the government responsible based on available proof to prove that the veterans were not exposed to alleged toxic of other dangerous substances as claimed by them to be the main causes of their disabilities. These procedures should also include provisions to cover for the spouses and children of service personnel who also may have been affected genetically or by secondary exposures. Transition ServicesThe transitional factor in veteran’s term is also an important one because when individuals transit from the Department of Defense to the Department of Veterans Affairâ€⠄¢s health and rehabilitation facilities, due to the lack of data sharing between them key information about the seriously injured veterans is found lacking. This obliges the Department of Veterans Affairs to depend on the unreliable data sharing arrangement made between them and the local military treatment facilities. This is a major issue where veterans are concerned and in particular this is harmful to those of them who are disabled and need vocational and other necessary services. These haphazard arrangements and practice also need to be addressed at the highest forums of the country with urgency (Health, 2006). Post-Traumatic Stress DisorderPTSD has become amongst the greatest challenges being faced by the country to meet the required levels of health care and rehabilitation for military personnel. PTSD needs to be redefined as a disability because it can prove to be chronic as well as invisible and it can also be episodic. During the chronic stage it can be controlled and not be defined as a disability through coping strategies and in its episodic manifestation stage where a singular or more major life functions is affected, it may be mistreated as being temporary and be limited to the prevalent statutory definition of disability. â€Å"The Institute of Medicine has been studying PTSD on an ongoing basis for more than two years.While recognizing that the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of PTSD may in some cases be uncertain, and in all cases will be highly individualized, NCD recommends that Congress conduct further oversight hearings into the VA’s understanding of the PTSD problem and into the agency’s ability to deal with it effectively, and that all necessary resources be made available to enhance VA’s work in this area. † (CRS Order Code RL 32961, June 24, 2005) Cost of War to Connecticut The direct cost to Connecticut due to the war from the year 2001 till the middle of 2006 has been the following according to officia l sources: While failing to give any priority to Connecticut’s security concerns, the present administration’s war has claimed a heavy toll of 9,604 young and brave Connecticut men and women lives in Iraq.A tremendous strain has been put of the families of 3,655 Reservists and National Guards who were deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq with many of them being called repeatedly to report for duty. The figures for the above two statistics are according to the Department of Defense as on 5/31/06. In Connecticut the administration has failed to secure the ports and borders adequately. The people of Connecticut are collectively trying to transform the war policies around and are pressing for the redeployment of the American Forces as quickly as possible. Connecticut is struggling to honor the sacrifices of the 268,947 veterans who have served for the nation and is trying to ensure that their due earned benefits are given to them.Due to the war, 40,100 jobs in the manufacturin g industries have been lost and at present 75,000 people are searching for jobs in Connecticut. The annual income per family has dropped to around US$ 274 since the 2000’s in Connecticut and the rising costs of consumables has reduced the purchase powers of the minimum wage earners to the lowest levels in 50 years. The people of Connecticut also feel that instead of creating jobs that pay well, the administration is providing subsidies of billions of dollars in corporate tax for overseas shipping jobs, while refusing to increase since the last nine years the minimum wage levels. The Connecticut people have to pay $ 3.20 for a gallon of gasoline on average, which is 111% more than what it was in January 2001, thus forcing families in Connecticut to bear and additional $2,695,339,147 cost of $2,001 per every two-car family on gasoline in comparison to 2001 as per the figures of the â€Å"House Government Reform Committee, Dem. Staff, 7/06†. Health insurance costs have sh arply raised in Connecticut since 2000 by $ 1,009 per family, which is a 66 percent rise, with the number of residents not insured reaching 407,000, which amounts to a 61,000 increase of residents since the year 2000. College costs for the 172,775 Connecticut students have soared as the federal financial aid by GOP has been reduced.Thus, attending a 4 year public college is costing32% more and of a 4 year private college costing 22% more in comparison to the fall of 2000, thus a typical student who borrows for graduation from college is in debt of $ 19,093. Unfortunately for Connecticut students the administration has cut $ 12 billion from the federal student aid programs making it harder for colleges to manage properly. Due to the war, the record out of control budget deficits is proving to be heavy taxes for the Connecticut families. It is to be noted here that during the last 5 years, the administration have turned a $ 5. 6 trillion surplus that was projected for 10 years into a record debt, and it borrowed another staggering $ 1 trillion, which is more borrowing than the combined totals of all the past 42 U. S. president’s administration put together.The net economic impact amounts to a debt burden of $ 31,393 per every typical middle-income Connecticut family of four (Official Website of the U. S. House of Representatives). In Connecticut the average outpatient psychiatric care expenses for every veteran comes up to $2,317 a year, which is considerably much more than being spent in other states. (Veterans Health Care) Cost of War in General Due to PSTD While more than 1. 2 million have so far gone for the war effort in Afghanistan and Iraq since 2001, with over a fourth of them having served their tour of duty more than once, Yale researcher’s studies indicate that approximately 196,000 veterans have symptoms of PTSD and its treatment costs $ 274 million, which is almost 13 percent of the total medical budget.Yale researchers expect that wit h the troops engaged now in two wars the numbers of PTSD cases in veterans will further raise. Furthermore, data collected from recent surveys conclude by suggesting that between 10 and 20 percent of the soldiers presently in Iraq meet the criteria by which PTSD is measured. (Yale, n. d. ) According to a report in the Associated Press dated 28th July 2006, every third soldier returning from war will have mental health related problems, which could lead to PTSD. The report continues by mentioning that 3 to 5 percent of the soldiers are diagnosed with severe mental health problems after they leave the combat zones, while a staggering 13 percent soldiers suffer severe mental health issues at the time of being in the combat zones.Mental health issues are also diagnosed when soldiers undergo their follow-up screening during the three and six month period, where another 4 to 5 percent are diagnosed with PTSD. However, PTSD symptoms are comparatively higher amongst the soldiers of the Nati onal Guard than the regular Army soldiers. In view of the stress related problems in the combat zones, 200 mental health experts have been sent to Iraq to help soldiers through counseling so as to prevent suicidal tendencies and other mental problems. (Soldiers Return Home with Mental Disorders) According to Congresswoman Rosa L. DeLauro (Conn. -3) m, approximately every sixth soldier returning from the war zone demonstrates PTSD symptoms and she has therefore requested for better mental health services for soldiers and their family members. (DeLauro)Another report in the March 12, 2007 issue of the Achieves of International Medicine suggests that soldiers younger then 25 years seemed more vulnerable to PTSD. (One of Three War Vets Have Mental-Health Problems) The fighting with an insurgency in Iraqi with unclear enemies and on the front lines have left soldiers highly vulnerable to PTSD and many are turning to alcoholism and drug abuse and at times they do not get timely treatment or proper counseling. A study by the found that 80% of the soldiers diagnosed with symptoms of PTSD were not referred for further mental-health services or evaluation. Studies have also confirmed that repeated deployment of soldiers increased the risk of PTSD. (Iraq War Vets Face Mental Illness) ConclusionWe will start the conclusion with the following quote: â€Å"Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired, signifies in the final sense a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed. † – President Dwight D. Eisenhower April 16, 1953 War is not just a business for the administration but war is everybody’s business as it is concerned directly with the mothers and the families of troops on the battle-fields and indirectly with the mothers and families of those who are affected due to the consequences of war. War concerns directly with the young men and women who because of their traumatic experience som etimes turn into the living dead.The clock that ticks the total running cost of the war in Iraq alone at the early hour of 3/16/07 was as at a staggering U. S. Dollars 374,213,602,800. – And increasing by the thousand every few seconds and it seemed to be in a rush to overtake the â€Å"dooms day clock†, (Farabaugh, 2006). While history has always been littered with exaggerated gross underestimates of war costs and some of their fine examples are; Abraham Lincoln had originally calculated the civil war to cost $ 250 million and to last 90 days but the civil war had its final price tag of $ 3. 3 billion and it lasted four years. The First World War was to be a short and inexpensive one as per forecasts and the Vietnam War cost 90% more than its forecast.The 1991 Persian Gulf or rather the Kuwait War ended up costing $ 76 billion in war costs directly but for a change these were paid for by the U. S. allies, however, it did cost a relatively lower number of 148 combat de aths. A decade later the taxpayers of the United States are still absorbing billions of dollars towards the cost of providing treatment for the injuries and disabilities of the veterans of that particular war, where one third of the 1990/1991 Gulf War veterans numbering 206,000 have filed for disabilities claims out of which 159,000 have been approved. If this postwar casualty rate is considered extraordinary, then God help us all with the postwar casualty rate of our present war.The former economic advisor to the White House, Lawrence Lindsey had suggested that the intervention in Iraq could cost the United States about 2% of its Gross Domestic Product or roughly put $200 billion. His estimates were rapidly dismissed by the White House and in a few months later he was dismissed from his position. Approximately a year and a half later his prediction began proved to be wrong and a gross underestimation of the Iraq intervention. The U. S. taxpayers up to now have committed approximate ly $180 billions for the buildup to the war for overthrowing Saddam Hussein’s regime and for the occupation and rebuilding process in Iraq, and this is not inclusive of the special aid and trade deals cost for buying allies.And the biggest source of underestimation that the war would be a â€Å"cakewalk† has been proven wrong. (Hartung, 2004) References DeLauro, Calls for Mental Health Services for Returning Soldiers http://www. house. gov/delauro/press/2005/April/vet_mh_04_11_05. html 16 March, 2007 Health, 2006, Chapter 4, National Council of Disability, Chapter 4 http://www. ncd. gov/newsroom/publications/2006/progress_report. htm#chapter_four Accessed: 16 March, 2007 Iraq War Vets Face Mental Illness, Addictions http://www. jointogether. org/news/headlines/inthenews/2006/iraq-war-vets-face-mental. html 16 March, 2007 Kane Farabaugh, 2006, Iraq War at Heart of Connecticut Senate Race http://www. voanews. com/english/archive/2006-10/2006-10-13-voa40. cfm?CFID=4842840 7&CFTOKEN=31645168 Accessed: 16 March, 2007 Official Website of the U. S. House of Representatives http://www. house. gov/delauro/NewDirection/NewDirection_Connecticut. html Accessed: 16 March, 2007 One of Three War Vets Have Mental-Health Problems, March 12, 2007 issue of the Archives of International Medicine http://www. jointogether. org/news/research/summaries/2007/one-of-three-war-vets-have. html 16 March, 2007 Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD Fact Sheet http://www. ivaw. org/ptsdfactsheet Accessed: 16 March, 2007 Soldiers Return Home with Mental Disorders http://www. jointogether. org/news/headlines/inthenews/2005/soldiers-return-home-with. html Accessed: 16 March, 2007Steve Robinson, Executive Director of the National Gulf War Resource Center, a veteran’s advocacy organization in Silver Spring, Md. Accessed: 16 March, 2007 The war in Iraq cost the United States http://www. venusproject. com/ecs/Cost_of_War_files/Cost_of_War. html Accessed: 16 March, 2007 Veterans H ealth Care Issues in the 109th Congress (CRS Order Code RL 32961, June 24, 2005) Veterans Health Care http://ptsdcombat. blogspot. com/2007/03/war-list-oefoif-statistics. html Accessed: 16 March, 2007 William D. Hartung, 2004, Iraq and the Costs of War, FPIF Policy Report http://www. fpif. org/papers/2004cost. html Accessed: 16 March, 2007 Yale, VA supporting troops on the home front http://www. medicineatyale. org/v2i1_january2006/ptsd. html Accessed: 16 March, 2007

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier

Daniel Rutherford Jacobus Henricus Walther Hermann Nernst Reinhold Benesch & Ruth Erica Benesch Find How Oxygen is Transported in Human Body Frederick Soddy Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Louis Jacques Thenard discovers hydrogen peroxide Jbir ibn Hayyn Ya'qub Al-Kindi Paul Karrer Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier Few things are as important as water, which we know is made of oxygen and hydrogen. Did you know that Antoine Lavoisier was the discoverer of both elements? Contributions to Science Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is one of the most important scientists in the history of chemistry.He discovered elements, formulated a basic law of chemistry and helped create the metric system. During his time, people believed that when an object burns, a mysterious substance called ‘phlogiston’ was released. This was called the ‘phlogiston theory’. Lavoisier’s experiments demonstrated the contrary, i. e. when something burned, it actually absorbed something from the air, ins tead of releasing anything. He later named the ‘something’ from the air as oxygen, when he found that it combined with other chemicals to form acid. (In Greek, ‘oxy’ means sharp, referring to the sharp taste of acids. Henry Cavendish had earlier isolated hydrogen, but he called it inflammable air. Lavoisier showed that this inflammable air burned to form a colourless liquid, which turned out to be water. The Greek word for water is ‘hydro’, so the air that burned to form water was hydrogen! Lavoisier was known for his painstaking attention to detail. Whenever he made a chemical reaction, he weighed all the substances carefully before and after the reaction. He discovered that in a chemical reaction, though substances may change their chemical nature, their total mass remains the same.This is called the law of conservation of mass. His love for accuracy led to the formulation of the metric system of weights and measures – which is still i n use today. Lavoisier’s attention to detail and habit of recording everything is perhaps his most important contribution – for that is now the way science is done. Biography Lavoiser was born on 26 August 1743 in a wealthy Parisian family. He studied at the College Mazarin from 1754 to 1761. His interest in chemistry was developed as he read the works of Etienne Condillac.In 1769, he set about making a geological map of France, which was important for that country’s industrial development. In 1769, he took a government position as a tax collector in the government of King Louis XVI. In 1771, he married Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze, who is considered as an eminent scientist in her own right. She translated the works of many scientists from English and German into French, and later on, with her husband, published the Traite elementaire de chimie, often considered the first comprehensive book on the subject.In 1789, King Louis XVI was overthrown in the French Revolu tion. As Lavoisier had been a tax collector, he earned the wrath of the revolutionaries, who executed him on 8 May 1794. SOURCE: http://humantouchofchemistry. com/antoinelaurent-de-lavoisier. htm Elements and Atoms: Chapter 3 Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) has been called the founder of modern chemistry. (View a portrait of Mme. & M. Lavoisier by Jacque-Louis David at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Among his important contributions were the application of the balance and the principle of conservation of mass to chemistry, the explanation of combustion and respiration in terms of combination with oxygen rather than loss of phlogiston (See chapter 5. ), and a reform of chemical nomenclature. His Traite Elementaire de Chimie (1789), from which the present extract is taken in a contemporary translation, was a tremendously influential synthesis of his work. Lavoisier was a public servant as well as a scientist.Under the French monarchy, he was a member of the tax-collecting agency, the Ferme Generale. His work for the government included advocating rational agricultural methods and improving the manufacture of gunpowder. His service to France continued during the Revolution. He was an alternate deputy of the reconvened Estates-General in 1789, and from 1790 served on a commission charged with making weights and measures uniform across France. A Parisian by birth, Lavoisier also died in Paris, guillotined with other former members of the Ferme Generale during the Reign of Terror in May 1794.The preface to his Traite Elementaire de Chimie is a fitting selection to follow Boyle's The Sceptical Chymist because it includes the definition of element that was to dominate chemistry throughout the next century, and which is still familiar in our own day. In addition, Lavoisier's musings on the connection between science and the language which conveys its ideas remain thought-provoking, particularly in light of the writings of Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Alfred Ayer in the first half of the 20th century.Even his comments about the pedagogy of introductory chemistry take sides in a debate that remains current. Antoine Lavoisier, Preface to Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. xiii-xxxvii When I began the following Work, my only object was to extend and explain more fully the Memoir which I read at the public meeting of the Academy of Science in the month of April 1787, on the necessity of reforming and completing the Nomenclature of Chemistry[1].While engaged in this employment, I perceived, better than I had ever done before, the justice of the following maxims of the Abbe de Condillac[2], in his System of Logic, and some other of his works. â€Å"We think only through the medium of words. –Languages are true analytical methods. –Algebra, which is adapted to its purpose in every species of expression, in the most simple, most exact, and best manner possible, is at the same time a language and an analytical method. –The art of reasoning is nothing more than a language well arranged. † Thus, while I thought myself employed only in forming a Nomenclature, and while I roposed to myself nothing more than to improve the chemical language, my work transformed itself by degrees, without my being able to prevent it, into a treatise upon the Elements of Chemistry. The impossibility of separating the nomenclature of a science from the science itself, is owing to this, that every branch of physical science must consist of three things; the series of facts which are the objects of the science, the ideas which represent these facts, and the words by which these ideas are expressed. Like three impressions of the same seal, the word ought to produce the idea, and the idea to be a picture of the fact.And, as ideas are preserved and communicated by means of words, it necessarily follows that we cannot improve the langua ge of any science without at the same time improving the science itself; neither can we, on the other hand, improve a science, without improving the language or nomenclature which belongs to it. However certain the facts of any science may be, and, however just the ideas we may have formed of these facts, we can only communicate false impressions to others, while we want words by which these may be properly expressed. 3] To those who will consider it with attention, the first part of this treatise will afford frequent proofs of the truth of the above observations. But as, in the conduct of my work, I have been obliged to observe an order of arrangement essentially differing from what has been adopted in any other chemical work yet published, it is proper that I should explain the motives which have led me to do so. It is a maxim universally admitted in geometry, and indeed in every branch of knowledge, that, in the progress of investigation, we should proceed from known facts to wha t is unknown.In early infancy, our ideas spring from our wants; the sensation of want excites the idea of the object by which it is to be gratified. In this manner, from a series of sensations, observations, and analyses, a successive train of ideas arises, so linked together, that an attentive observer may trace back to a certain point the order and connection of the whole sum of human knowledge. When we begin the study of any science, we are in a situation, respecting that science, similar to that of children; and the course by which we have to advance is precisely the same which Nature follows in the formation of their ideas.In a child, the idea is merely an effect produced by a sensation; and, in the same manner, in commencing the study of a physical science, we ought to form no idea but what is a necessary consequence, and immediate effect, of an experiment or observation. [4] Besides, he that enters upon the career of science, is in a less advantageous situation than a child w ho is acquiring his first ideas. To the child, Nature gives various means of rectifying any mistakes he may commit respecting the salutary or hurtful qualities of the objects which surround him.On every occasion his judgments are corrected by experience; want and pain are the necessary consequences arising from false judgment; gratification and pleasure are produced by judging aright. Under such masters, we cannot fail to become well informed; and we soon learn to reason justly, when want and pain are the necessary consequences of a contrary conduct. [5] In the study and practice of the sciences it is quite different; the false judgments we form neither affect our existence nor our welfare; and we are not forced by any physical necessity to correct them.Imagination, on the contrary, which is ever wandering beyond the bounds of truth, joined to self-love and that self-confidence we are so apt to indulge, prompt us to draw conclusions which are not immediately derived from facts; so t hat we become in some measure interested in deceiving ourselves. Hence it is by no means to be wondered, that, in the science of physics in general, men have often made suppositions, instead of forming conclusions.These suppositions, handed down from one age to another, acquire additional weight from the authorities by which they are supported, till at last they are received, even by men of genius, as fundamental truths. The only method of preventing such errors from taking place, and of correcting them when formed, is to restrain and simplify our reasoning as much as possible. This depends entirely upon ourselves, and the neglect of it is the only source of our mistakes. We must trust to nothing but facts: These are presented to us by Nature, and cannot deceive.We ought, in every instance, to submit our reasoning to the test of experiment, and never to search for truth but by the natural road of experiment and observation. Thus mathematicians obtain the solution of a problem by the mere arrangement of data, and by reducing their reasoning to such simple steps, to conclusions so very obvious, as never to lose sight of the evidence which guides them. [6] Thoroughly convinced of these truths, I have imposed upon myself, as a law, never to advance but from what is known to what is unknown; never to form any conclusion which is not an immediate consequence necessarily lowing from observation and experiment; and always to arrange the fact, and the conclusions which are drawn from them, in such an order as shall render it most easy for beginners in the study of chemistry thoroughly to understand them. Hence I have been obliged to depart from the usual order of courses of lectures and of treatises upon chemistry, which always assume the first principles of the science, as known, when the pupil or the reader should never be supposed to know them till they have been explained in subsequent lessons.In almost every instance, these begin by treating of the elements of mat ter, and by explaining the table of affinities[7], without considering, that, in so doing, they must bring the principal phenomena of chemistry into view at the very outset: They make use of terms which have not been defined, and suppose the science to be understood by the very persons they are only beginning to teach. 8] It ought likewise to be considered, that very little of chemistry can be learned in a first course, which is hardly sufficient to make the language of the science familiar to the ears, or the apparatus familiar to the eyes. It is almost impossible to become a chemist in less than three or four years of constant application. These inconveniencies are occasioned not so much by the nature of the subject, as by the method of teaching it; and, to avoid them, I was chiefly induced to adopt a new arrangement of chemistry, which appeared to me more consonant to the order of Nature.I acknowledge, however, that in thus endeavouring to avoid difficulties of one kind, I have f ound myself involved in others of a different species, some of which I have not been able to remove; but I am persuaded, that such as remain do not arise from the nature of the order I have adopted, but are rather consequences of the imperfection under which chemistry still labours.This science still has many chasms, which interrupt the series of facts, and often render it extremely difficult to reconcile them with each other: It has not, like the elements of geometry, the advantage of being a complete science, the parts of which are all closely connected together: Its actual progress, however, is so rapid, and the facts, under the modern doctrine, have assumed so happy an arrangement, that we have ground to hope, even in our own times, to see it approach near to the highest state of perfection of which it is susceptible. 9] The rigorous law from which I have never deviated, of forming no conclusions which are not fully warranted by experiment, and of never supplying the absence of facts, has prevented me from comprehending in this work the branch of chemistry which treats of affinities, although it is perhaps the best calculated of any part of chemistry for being reduced into a completely systematic body.Messrs Geoffroy, Gellert, Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, Kirwan,[10] and many others, have collected a number of particular facts upon this subject, which only wait for a proper arrangement; but the principal data are still wanting, or, at least, those we have are either not sufficiently defined, or not sufficiently proved, to become the foundation upon which to build so very important a branch of chemistry.This science of affinities, or elective attractions, holds the same place with regard to the other branches of chemistry, as the higher or transcendental geometry does with respect to the simpler and elementary part; and I thought it improper to involve those simple and plain elements, which I flatter myself the greatest part of my readers will easily under stand, in the obscurities and difficulties which still attend that other very useful and necessary branch of chemical science. Perhaps a sentiment of self-love may, without my perceiving it, have given additional force to these reflections.Mr de Morveau is at present engaged in publishing the article Affinity in the Methodical Encyclopedia; and I had more reasons than one to decline entering upon a work in which he is employed. It will, no doubt, be a matter of surprise, that in a treatise upon the elements of chemistry, there should be no chapter on the constituent and elementary parts of matter; but I shall take occasion, in this place, to remark, that the fondness for reducing all the bodies in nature to three or four elements, proceeds from a prejudice which has descended to us from the Greek Philosophers.The notion of four elements, which, by the variety of their proportions, compose all the known substances in nature, is a mere hypothesis, assumed long before the first princip les of experimental philosophy or of chemistry had any existence. In those days, without possessing facts, they framed systems; while we, who have collected facts, seem determined to reject them, when they do not agree with our prejudices.The authority of these fathers of human philosophy still carry great weight, and there is reason to fear that it will even bear hard upon generations yet to come. [11] It is very remarkable, that, notwithstanding of the number of philosophical chemists who have supported the doctrine of the four elements, there is not one who has not been led by the evidence of facts to admit a greater number of elements into their theory.The first chemists that wrote after the revival of letters, considered sulphur and salt as elementary substances entering into the composition of a great number of substances; hence, instead of four, they admitted the existence of six elements. Beccher assumes the existence of three kinds of earth, from the combination of which, i n different proportions, he supposed all the varieties of metallic substances to be produced. Stahl gave a new modification to this system; and succeeding chemists have taken the liberty to make or to imagine changes and additions of a similar nature.All these chemists were carried along by the influence of the genius of the age in which they lived, which contented itself with assertions without proofs; or, at least, often admitted as proofs the slightest degrees of probability, unsupported by that strictly rigorous analysis required by modern philosophy. [12] All that can be said upon the number and nature of elements is, in my opinion, confined to discussions entirely of a metaphysical nature. The subject only furnishes us with indefinite problems, which may be solved in a thousand different ways, not one of which, in all probability, is consistent with nature.I shall therefore only add upon this subject, that if, by the term elements, we mean to express those simple and indivisib le atoms of which matter is composed, it is extremely probable we know nothing at all about them; but, if we apply the term elements, or principles of bodies, to express our idea of the last point which analysis is capable of reaching, we must admit, as elements, all the substances into which we are capable, by any means, to reduce bodies by decomposition. 13] Not that we are entitled to affirm, that these substances we consider as simple may not be compounded of two, or even of a greater number of principles; but, since these principles cannot be separated, or rather since we have not hitherto discovered the means of separating them, they act with regard to us as simple substances, and we ought never to suppose them compounded until experiment and observation has proved them to be so. 14] The foregoing reflections upon the progress of chemical ideas naturally apply to the words by which these ideas are to be expressed. Guided by the work which, in the year 1787, Messrs de Morveau, Berthollet, de Fourcroy, and I composed upon the Nomenclature of Chemistry, I have endeavoured, as much as possible, to denominate simple bodies by simple terms, and I was naturally led to name these first. 15] It will be recollected, that we were obliged to retain that name of any substance by which it had been long known in the world, and that in two cases only we took the liberty of making alterations; first, in the case of those which were but newly discovered, and had not yet obtained names, or at least which had been known but for a short time, and the names of which had not yet received the sanction of the public; and, secondly, when the names which had been adopted, whether by the ancients or the moderns, appeared to us to express evidently false ideas, when they confounded the substances, to which they were applied, with others possessed of different, or perhaps opposite qualities. We made no scruple, in this case, of substituting other names in their room, and the greatest number of these were borrowed from the Greek language. We endeavoured to frame them in such a manner as to express the most general and the most characteristic quality of the substances; and this was attended with the additional advantage both of assisting the memory of beginners, who find it difficult to remember a new word which has no meaning, and of accustoming them early to admit no word without connecting with it some determinate idea. 16] To those bodies which are formed by the union of several simple substances we gave new names, compounded in such a manner as the nature of the substances directed; but, as the number of double combinations is already very considerable, the only method by which we could avoid confusion, was to divide them into classes. In the natural order of ideas, the name of the class or genus is that which expresses a quality common to a great number of individuals: The name of the species, on the contrary, expresses a quality peculiar to certain individ uals only. [17] These distinctions are not, as some may imagine, merely metaphysical, but are established by Nature. A child,† says the Abbe de Condillac, â€Å"is taught to give the name tree to the first one which is pointed out to him. The next one he sees presents the same idea, and he gives it the same name. This he does likewise to a third and a fourth, till at last the word tree, which he first applied to an individual, comes to be employed by him as the name of a class or a genus, an abstract idea, which comprehends all trees in general. But, when he learns that all trees serve not the same purpose, that they do not all produce the same kind of fruit, he will soon learn to distinguish them by specific and particular names. † This is the logic of all the sciences, and is naturally applied of chemistry.The acids, for example, are compounded of two substances, of the order of those which we consider as simple; the one constitutes acidity, and is common to all acids , and, from this substance, the name of the class or the genus ought to be taken; the other is peculiar to each acid, and distinguishes it from the rest, and from this substance is to be taken the name of the species. But, in the greatest number of acids, the two constituent elements, the acidifying principle, and that which it acidifies, may exist in different proportions, constituting all the possible points of equilibrium or of saturation. This is the case in the sulphuric and the sulphurous acids; and these two states of the same acid we have marked by varying the termination of the specific name. Metallic substances which have been exposed to the joint action of the air and of fire, lose their metallic lustre, increase in weight, and assume an earthy appearance.In this state, like the acids, they are compounded of a principle which is common to all, and one which is peculiar to each. In the same way, therefore, we have thought proper to class them under a generic name, derived from the common principle; for which purpose, we adopted the term oxyd; and we distinguish them from each other by the particular name of the metal to which each belongs. [18] Combustible substances, which in acids and metallic oxyds are a specific and particular principle, are capable of becoming, in their turn, common principles of a great number of substances. The sulphurous combinations have been long the only known ones in this kind.Now, however, we know, from the experiments of Messrs Vandermonde, Monge, and Berthollet, that charcoal may be combined with iron, and perhaps with several other metals; and that, from this combination, according to the proportions, may be produced steel, plumbago, &c. [19] We know likewise, from the experiments of M. Pelletier, that phosphorus may be combined with a great number of metallic substances. These different combinations we have classed under generic names taken from the common substance, with a termination which marks this analogy, speci fying them by another name taken from that substance which is proper to each. The nomenclature of bodies compounded of three simple substances was attended with still greater difficulty, not only on account of their number, but, particularly, because we cannot express the nature of their constituent principles without employing more compound names.In the bodies which form this class, such as the neutral salts, for instance, we had to consider, 1st, The acidifying principle, which is common to them all; 2d, The acidifiable principle which constitutes their peculiar acid; 3d, The saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which determines the particular species of salt. Here we derived the name of each class of salts from the name of the acidifiable principle common to all the individuals of that class; and distinguished each species by the name of the saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which is peculiar to it. [20] A salt, though compounded of the same three principles, may, nevertheless, by the mere difference of their proportion, be in three different states.The nomenclature we have adopted would have been defective, had it not expressed these different states; and this we attained chiefly by changes of termination uniformly applied to the same state of the different salts. In short, we have advanced so far, that from the name alone may be instantly found what the combustible substance is which enters into any combination; whether that combustible substance be combined with the acidifying principle, and in what proportion; what is the state of the acid; with what basis it is united; whether the saturation be exact, or whether the acid or the basis be in excess. It may be easily supposed that it was not possible to attain all these different objects without departing, in some instances, from established custom, and adopting terms which at first sight will appear uncouth and barbarous.But we considered that the ear is soon habituated to new words, especially when they are connected with a general and rational system. The names, besides, which were formerly employed, such as powder of algaroth, salt of alembroth, pompholix, phagadenic water, turbith mineral, colcothar, and many others, were neither less barbarous nor less uncommon. [21] It required a great deal of practice, and no small degree of memory, to recollect the substances to which they were applied, much more to recollect the genus of combination to which they belonged. The names of oil of tartar per deliquium, oil of vitriol, butter of arsenic and of antimony, flowers of zinc, &c. ere still more improper, because they suggested false ideas: For, in the whole mineral kingdom, and particularly in the metallic class, there exists no such thing as butters, oils, or flowers; and, in short, the substances to which they give these fallacious names, are nothing less than rank poisons. [22] When we published our essay on the nomenclature of chemistry, we were reproached for having changed the la nguage which was spoken by our masters, which they distinguished by their authority, and handed down to us. But those who reproach us on this account, have forgotten that it was Bergman and Macquer themselves who urged us to make this reformation. In a letter which the learned Professor of Upsal, M. Bergman, wrote, a short time before he died, to M. de Morveau, he bids him spare no improper names; those who are learned, will always be learned, and those who are ignorant will thus learn sooner. 23] There is an objection to the work which I am going to present to the public, which is perhaps better founded, that I have given no account of the opinion of those who have gone before me; that I have stated only my own opinion, without examining that of others. By this I have been prevented from doing that justice to my associates, and more especially to foreign chemists, which I wished to render them. But I beseech the reader to consider, that, if I had filled an elementary work with a mu ltitude of quotations; if I had allowed myself to enter into long dissertations on the history of the science, and the works of those who have studied it, I must have lost sight of the true object I had in view, and produced a work, the reading of which must have been extremely tiresome to beginners.It is not to the history of the science, or of the human mind, that we are to attend in an elementary treatise:[24] Our only aim ought to be ease and perspicuity, and with the utmost care to keep every thing out of view which might draw aside the attention of the student; it is a road which we should be continually rendering more smooth, and from which we should endeavour to remove every obstacle which can occasion delay. The sciences, from their own nature, present a sufficient number of difficulties, though we add not those which are foreign to them. But, besides this, chemists will easily perceive, that, in the fist part of my work, I make very little use of any experiments but those which were made by myself: If at any time I have adopted, without acknowledgment, the experiments or the opinions of M. Berthollet, M. Fourcroy, M. de la Place, M.Monge, or, in general, of any of those whose principles are the same with my own, it is owing to the circumstance, that frequent intercourse, and the habit of communicating our ideas, our observations, and our way of thinking to each other, has established between us a sort of community of opinions, in which it is often difficult for every one to know his own. [25] The remarks I have made on the order which I thought myself obliged to follow in the arrangement of proofs and ideas, are to be applied only to the first part of this work. It is the only one which contains the general sum of the doctrine I have adopted, and to which I wished to give a form completely elementary. 26] The second part is composed chiefly of tables of the nomenclature of the neutral salts. To these I have only added general explanations, the object of which was to point out the most simple processes for obtaining the different kinds of known acids. This part contains nothing which I can call my own, and presents only a very short abridgment of the results of these processes, extracted from the works of different authors. In the third part, I have given a description, in detail, of all the operations connected with modern chemistry. I have long thought that a work of this kind was much wanted, and I am convinced it will not be without use.The method of performing experiments, and particularly those of modern chemistry, is not so generally known as it ought to be; and had I, in the different memoirs which I have presented to the Academy, been more particular in the detail of the manipulations of my experiments, it is probable I should have made myself better understood, and the science might have made a more rapid progress. The order of the different matters contained in this third part appeared to me to be almost arbitrary; an d the only one I have observed was to class together, in each of the chapters of which it is composed, those operations which are most connected with one another. I need hardly mention that this part could not be borrowed from any other work, and that, in the principal articles it contains, I could not derive assistance from any thing but the experiments which I have made myself.I shall conclude this preface by transcribing, literally, some observations of the Abbe de Condillac, which I think describe, with a good deal of truth, the state of chemistry at a period not far distant from our own. These observations were made on a different subject; but they will not, on this account, have less force, if the application of them be thought just. [27] â€Å"Instead of applying observation to the things we wished to know, we have chosen rather to imagine them. Advancing from one ill founded supposition to another, we have at last bewildered ourselves amidst a multitude of errors. These err ors becoming prejudices, are, of course, adopted as principles, and we thus bewilder ourselves more and more. The method, too, by which we conduct our reasonings is as absurd; we abuse words which we do not understand, and call this the art of reasoning.When matters have been brought this length, when errors have been thus accumulated, there is but one remedy by which order can be restored to the faculty of thinking; this is, to forget all that we have learned, to trace back our ideas to their source, to follow the train in which they rise, and, as my Lord Bacon says, to frame the human understanding anew. â€Å"This remedy becomes the more difficult in proportion as we think ourselves more learned. Might it not be thought that works which treated of the sciences with the utmost perspicuity, with great precision and order, must be understood by every body? The fact is, those who have never studied any thing will understand them better than those who have studied a great deal, and e specially those who have written a great deal. At the end of the fifth chapter, the Abbe de Condillac adds: â€Å"But, after all, the sciences have made progress, because philosophers have applied themselves with more attention to observe, and have communicated to their language that precision and accuracy which they have employed in their observations: In correcting their language they reason better. † Antoine Lavoisier, Table of Simple Substances in Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. 175-6 Simple substances belonging to all the kingdoms of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies. New Names. | Correspondent old Names. | Light[28]| Light. | Caloric| Heat. | | Principle or element of heat. | | Fire. Igneous fluid. | Matter of fire and of heat. | Oxygen[29]| Depholgisticated air. | | Empyreal air. | | Vital air, or | | Base of vital air. | Azote[30]| Phlogisticated air or gas. | | Mephitis, or its base. | Hydrogen[31]| Infl ammable air or gas, | | or the base of inflammable air. | Oxydable[32] and Acidifiable simple Substances not Metallic. New Names. | Correspondent old names. | Sulphur| The same names. | Phosphorus | | Charcoal | | Muriatic radical[33]| Still unknown. | Fluoric radical | | Boracic radical| | Oxydable and Acidifiable simple Metallic Bodies. New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Antimony| Regulus[34] of| Antimony. | Arsenic| † â€Å"| Arsenic |Bismuth| † â€Å"| Bismuth | Cobalt| † â€Å"| Cobalt | Copper| † â€Å"| Copper | Gold| † â€Å"| Gold | Iron| † â€Å"| Iron | Lead| † â€Å"| Lead | Manganese| † â€Å"| Manganese | Mercury| † â€Å"| Mercury | Molybdena[35]| † â€Å"| Molybdena | Nickel| † â€Å"| Nickel | Platina| † â€Å"| Platina | Silver| † â€Å"| Silver | Tin| † â€Å"| Tin | Tungstein[36]| † â€Å"| Tungstein | Zinc| † â€Å"| Zinc| Salifiable simple Earthy Substances[37] New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Lime| Chalk, calcareous earth. | | Quicklime. | Magnesia| Magnesia, base of Epsom salt. | | Calcined or caustic magnesia. | Barytes| Barytes, or heavy earth. | Argill| Clay, earth of alum. | Silex| Siliceous or vitrifiable earth. |Notes [1]Lavoisier read â€Å"Methode de Nomenclature Chimique† before the French Academy on 18 April 1787. This outline for a reformulation of chemical nomenclature was prepared by Lavoisier and three of his early converts to the oxygen theory of combustion, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine Francois de Fourcroy. De Morveau had already argued for a reformed nomenclature, and he developed the April 1787 outline in a memoir read to the Academy on 2 May 1787. [Leicester & Klickstein 1952] [2]Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) was a French philosopher and associate of Rousseau, Diderot, and the Encyclopedists.His La Logique (1780) stressed the importance of language as a tool in scientific and logical reasoning. [3]Lavoisier makes an excellent point, but he overstates it. Clearly ones ideas are not strictly limited or determined by one's language. New ideas must exist before new terms can be coined to express those ideas; thus new ideas can be formed and even to some extent described under the sway of older language. Also, new terms can only be defined by reference to pre-existing terms. Sometimes new terms are not necessary, as old terms absorb new meanings. For example, I hope that the selections in this book show to some extent how the terms â€Å"atom† and â€Å"element† have changed in meaning over time.Having made these points, I do not wish to minimize the ability of new terminology to help the mind to run along the path of new insights, or to prevent it from falling into old misconceptions. [4]Note that Lavoisier does not say merely that we ought not believe any idea but what follows immediately and necessarily f rom experiment, we ought not even form the idea. This statement shows a wariness of hypotheses common to many early scientists and natural philosophers. Compare Newton's, â€Å"I frame no hypotheses; for †¦ hypotheses †¦ have no place in experimental philosophy. † [in Bartlett 1980] Hypotheses had no part in the empirical methodology of Francis Bacon (1561-1626; see portrait at National Portrait Gallery, London), which emphasized collection and classification of facts. This aversion to hypotheses is too not urprising if one considers that empiricists were attempting to distance themselves from rationalism. Later formulations of the scientific method, however, acknowledge the utility of hypotheses, always treated as provisional, in both suggesting experiments and interpreting them. [5]Lavoisier was not the last to observe that children are born scientists who learn by experience. [6]Lavoisier's choice of mathematics as an example may strike a modern reader as odd. Wh ile mathematics has long served as an example of the kind of certainty to which scientists aspire (â€Å"mathematical certainty†), it is now seen as based on axioms, not empirically based.Such mathematical systems as non-Euclidean geometry, which seemed to disagree with observed reality, had not yet been constructed at the time of Lavoisier's writing, though. [7]A table of affinities was a summary of a great deal of information on chemical reactions. It lists what substances react chemically with a given substance, often in order of the vigor or extent of the reaction. (If substance A reacted more strongly than substance B with a given material, then substance A was said to have a greater affinity than B for that material. ) View a table of affinities by Etienne-Francois Geoffroy (1672-1731). [8]In Lavoisier's mind, it makes no sense to jump to this summary table without first describing the various substances and their characteristic reactions.The proper role of descriptive chemistry in the chemical curriculum continues to be a topic of debate in chemical education. Apparently Lavoisier would be quite sympathetic to the charge that introductory courses emphasize unifying principles at the expense of descriptive chemistry. [9]This is certainly an optimistic statement! Two hundred years later chemistry has developed to an extent Lavoisier could not have imagined, yet it is a rare and foolish chemist who expects the science to exhaust its possibilities for discovery within a lifetime. [10]Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, and Kirwan were all contemporaries of Lavoisier. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had a hand in the discovery of oxygen, chlorine, and manganese.The Swedish chemist and mineralogist Torbern Bergman made contributions to analytical chemistry and the classification of minerals. Richard Kirwan was an Irish chemist and a defender of the phlogiston theory. [11]The influence of the ancients was on the decline when Lavoisier wrote these wor ds, but he does not exaggerate the importance of their thought. Remember that he is still concerned about their influence more than a century after The Sceptical Chymist and more than two millennia after the death of Aristotle. (See chapters 1 and 2. ) The simplicity of ancient ideas of matter would continue to have an influence on chemists well after Lavoisier's time, particularly as the number of chemical elements grew. (See chapter 10. [12]Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682) and Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734) were the two men most closely associated with the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier was largely responsible for dislodging and discrediting the notion that combustion and respiration involved a loss of a subtle material called phlogiston. (See chapter 5. ) Lavoisier makes light of their ideas here, but the theory, though incorrect, was not as nonsensical as it may now appear. [13]Notice the pragmatism of Lavoisier's approach: he suggests, in essence, forgetting about the ultimate bu ilding blocks of matter. This was a prudent recommendation, for he had no way of addressing that subject empirically (which is why he dismisses it as metaphysical).He continues by suggesting that chemists turn their attention to what they can observe empirically, the ultimate products of chemical analysis. The definition of an element as a body which cannot be broken down further by chemical analysis is an operational one: as the techniques of chemical analysis improved, then substances scientists had any right to regard as elements could change. At first, this definition of element appears to be similar to that of Boyle. (See chapter 2, note 9. ) However, Boyle seemed not to consider elementary substances which were not components of all compound matter. [14]Lavoisier's table of simple bodies, reproduced below the preface, follows this prescription approximately, but not exactly. See note 33 below. ) [15]See note 34 below on names of metals. [16]Thus, where possible the name of a c hemical substance should not simply be an arbitrary word, but should give some information about the substance. This principle is particularly evident in the modern systematic nomenclature of organic compounds: the name enables one who knows the rules of nomenclature and some organic chemistry to draw the structural formula of a compound from its name. (See IUPAC 1979, 1993. ) The principle is also evident in the nomenclature of inorganic compounds [IUPAC 1971], the class of compounds Lavoisier's nomenclature primarily addresses. It is least vident in modern names of the elements, many of which are named after important scientists (e. g. curium, mendelevium, rutherfordium) or places important to the discoverers (e. g. polonium). (See Ringnes 1989 for etymology of elements' names. ) Ironically, Lavoisier coined the name for an element central to his contributions to chemistry, a name of Greek origin chosen to convey information about the element which turned out to be incorrect. The name â€Å"oxygen† means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed that oxygen was a component of all acids. [17]Already we see the close connection Lavoisier envisioned between the language of chemistry and the content of the science.The system of naming compounds depends on classifying those compounds. Compounds belonging to the same class would have similar names. The name would also reflect the chemical composition of the substance. [18]So the classes of compounds included acids, oxides, sulfides, and the like. To specify which acid, a particular name was added, e. g. nitrous acid. Different suffixes distinguished between similar particular names (such as sulfuric and sulfurous–the -ic suffix applying to the more highly oxidized form). [19]What Lavoisier has in mind is a class of materials now called carbides, inorganic compounds of a metal and carbon (â€Å"charcoal†). But the examples he gives are not carbides.Steel is an alloy (a mixture or soluti on of metals, and therefore not a chemical compound of definite proportions); in particular, steel is principally iron with some carbon and sometimes other metals (such as chromium or manganese). Although plumbago has been used to refer to a variety of lead-containing substances (as might be guessed from the root plumb-), it also (as here) refers to the substance now called graphite, the form of carbon commonly used for pencil â€Å"leads. † [20]Again in the case of salts we see the nomenclature embodying the principles of the chemical theory of the day. A salt was seen as a compound of an acid and a base, and an acid itself a compound of an acidifiable part and an acidifying part.The acidifying part, whatever its nature, was believed to be common to all acids; since it would not distinguish one salt from another, it does not appear in the name of the salt. The salts, then, carry the name of the acidifiable piece and the base with which it combines. [21]Pompholix was a crude (i. e. , not very pure) zinc oxide (ZnO), sometimes known by the more pleasant but hardly more informative name flowers of zinc. Phagadenic water was a corrosive liquid used to cleanse ulcers; phagadenic refers to a spreading or â€Å"eating† ulcer. Colcothar is a brownish-red mixture containing primarily ferric oxide (Fe2O3) with some calcium sulfate (CaSO4). [Oxford 1971] [22]Oil of vitriol is sulfuric acid, a viscous liquid.Butter of arsenic (arsenic trichloride) is an oily liquid; and butter of antimony (antimony trichloride) is a colorless deliquescent solid. In one sense, these names are informative, for they suggest the physical appearance of the substances they name; they are, however, also misleading in the sense Lavoisier points out. [23]Lavoisier recognizes that even the most rationally designed nomenclature would be useless if chemists chose not to use it. A language is one of the most visible signs of a people and culture; naturally, efforts to tamper with it can meet with disapproval. Thus Lavoisier pays at least nominal attention to aesthetic and cultural considerations, noting just above that the new terms sound no more â€Å"barbarous† than some technical terms then in existence.In a similar vein, he makes a concession to linguistic conservatism still further above, where he indicates that he does not propose to displace familiar names, at least for elements. And here he concedes that one ought not lightly to tamper with language, but that in doing so he is responding to a need and a demand. [24]Chemistry curricula in general devote little time to the history of the science, and that little usually consists of anecdotes scattered among other material. Discoverers of laws and elements may be mentioned; the pathways of discovery, however, let alone false steps on those pathways, almost never are. (See, however, Giunta 2001. In my opinion, the teaching of scientific process (as opposed to content) suffers as a result. The emphasis o n current content to the exclusion of historical material, however, itself has a long history and such distinguished advocates as Lavoisier. [25]The standards for crediting others for their ideas, particularly when they are similar to one's own, were not as stringent in Lavoisier's time as in our own. And yet Lavoisier was criticized even by contemporaries for failing to give what they believed to be sufficient credit. For instance, Joseph Priestley did not believe Lavoisier gave him sufficient credit for the discovery of â€Å"dephlogisticated air† (oxygen) when he described his own similar experiments [Conant 1957].And Lavoisier's failure to credit James Watt and Henry Cavendish for their insights into the compound nature of water were a part of the sometimes rancorous â€Å"water controversy† [Ihde 1964]. See chapters 4 and 6 for articles on these subjects. [26]The first part of the treatise deals with gases, caloric, and the combustion of elements, so it truly cont ains the work most closely associated with Lavoisier. [27]Indeed, these words, which advocate empirical observation over rationalism as the source of reliable knowledge, apply to any science. [28]Light and caloric are not found on modern tables of elements because they are even matter, let alone elements of material bodies.Although a wave theory of light had been proposed by this time (by Christiaan Huygens), Newton's corpuscular (particle) theory was widely accepted until the 19th century. Similarly, until the 19th century, heat was widely believed to be a material, a fluid which flowed out of hot bodies and into cold ones (even though mechanical theories of heat with a Newtonian pedigree also existed at this time). See chapter 5, note 17 for a description of Lavoisier's thinking about heat and fire. ) [29]As mentioned above, the name oxygen means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed (incorrectly) that oxygen was a component of all acids. Oxygen was a relatively recent ly discovered substance, and it did not have a standard name.The various names used for it are descriptive, but clumsy. â€Å"Dephlogisticated air† is particularly objectionable, for it described oxygen in terms of the phlogistion theory, which Lavoisier was in the process discrediting. [30]The name azote and the current name nitrogen were both used in English from the time of Lavoisier into the 19th century. Azote means â€Å"lifeless,† for breathing nitrogen does not sustain life. [31]Hydrogen means â€Å"water former,† for water results from the burning of hydrogen. (See chapter 6. ) Hydrogen was one of several gases discovered in the 18th century. The names then in use for it were informative, denoting its flammability. [32]I. e. substances which can be oxidized (combined with oxygen). [33]These three radicals or â€Å"roots† had not yet been isolated or properly characterized. The fluoric radical, now called fluorine, is the root of fluorspar and oth er fluorine-containing minerals. Fluorine is very difficult to separate from its compounds, and is a very reactive and dangerous gas in its elemental form. This gas was not isolated until 1886. The boracic radical, now called boron, is the root of the mineral borax (Na2B4O7); boron was not isolated until 1808. [Weeks & Leicester, 1968] Muriatic acid was the name then in use for what we call hydrochloric acid or hydrogen chloride, HCl.Chlorine, the element which distinguishes this acid from others, was discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele; however, he named it oxymuriatic acid, believing it to be a compound containing oxygen. Muriatic radical, then, was the name for the hypothetical element believed to be combined with oxygen in oxymuriatic acid. Muriatic, by the way, means â€Å"pertaining to †¦ brine or salt† [Oxford 1971]; the salt of muriatic acid is common table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl). Lavoisier had good reason to expect that these radicals would be isolated, for their compounds had been known for a long time; however, the fluoric and boracic radicals were, strictly speaking, hypothetical substances at this time, and the basis of muriatic acid had already been isolated but he did not recognize it as elementary.Had he kept strictly to the principle of considering a substance an element if it could not be further decomposed, then Lavoisier should also have included â€Å"oxymuriatic acid† (undoubtedly by a different name) among the elements; as it was, chlorine was named and recognized to be elementary only in 1810 [Davy 1810, 1811]. Although we can see, with hindsight, that Lavoisier was incorrect, it was by no means obvious at the time. Chlorine had been prepared from reactions with substances that do contain oxygen, for example from pyrolusite (MnO2) in Scheele's original isolation and from aqueous muriatic acid (HCl). [34]Until the phlogiston theory was discarded, metals were commonly regarded as compounds of their minerals ( "earths†) and phlogiston. This idea was incorrect, but it seemed to make sense, for the earths or ores seemed to be more fundamental than the metals.After all, the earths were found readily in nature, but to obtain the metals one had to heat the earths strongly in the presence of charcoal. In any event, the metal came to be known as the regulus of the mineral; for example, the name antimony was originally applied to an antimony sulfide, Sb2S3, and the metal was called regulus of antimony. Lavoisier drops the term regulus, giving the simple body (the metal) the simple, unmodified term. [35]The element is now known as molybdenum. Similarly Lavoisier's platina is now called platinum. The ending is important: the -um ending now denotes a metal, while the -a ending denotes an oxide of that metal. [36]Now tungsten. [37]All of these â€Å"earthy substances† proved to be compounds.Their elements were first isolated in the early 19th century. Of course, Lavoisier was justified i n including them among his elements, for none of them had yet been broken down into anything simpler. Two interesting omissions from this table are soda and potash, comounds of sodium and potassium known since antiquity but whose elementary metals had not yet been extracted. One might have expected Lavoisier to list such substances either here or with the hypothesized radicals (note 33). Chalk frequently refered to calcium carbonate (CaCO3), but apparently it was also used for calcium oxide [Oxford 1971]. Magnesia is magnesium oxide, MgO. (See note 35. Epsom salt is magnesium sulfate, MgSO4, so named for the location (an English town) of a mineral spring from which the salt was obtained. Barytes is barium oxide, BaO. Argill or argil is an aluminum-containing potters' clay. Alum is a transparent aluminum-containing mineral, AlK(SO4)2. 12H2O. Humphry Davy was the first to isolate calcium, magnesium, barium, [Davy 1808b] sodium, and potassium [Davy 1808a]; he was also a co-discoverer o f boron [Davy 1809] and he recognized chlorine to be an element (note 34). Vitrifiable means able to be made into glass; indeed, common glass is mainly silicon dioxide. [Weeks & Leicester 1968] Source: http://web. lemoyne. edu/~giunta/ea/lavprefann. html Antoine-Laurent LavoisierAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier. Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a design by Julien Leopold Boilly. Courtesy Blocker History of Medicine Collections, Moody Medical Library, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas. The son of a wealthy Parisian lawyer, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) completed a law degree in accordance with family wishes. His real interest, however, was in science, which he pursued with passion while leading a full public life. On the basis of his earliest scientific work, mostly in geology, he was elected in 1768—at the early age of 25—to the Academy of Sciences, France’s most elite scientific society.In the same year he bought i nto the Ferme Generale, the private corporation that collected taxes for the Crown on a profit-and-loss basis. A few years later he married the daughter of another tax farmer, Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who was not quite 14 at the time. Madame Lavoisier prepared herself to be her husband’s scientific collaborator by learning English to translate the work of British chemists like Joseph Priestley and by studying art and engraving to illustrate Antoine-Laurent’s scientific experiments. In 1775 Lavoisier was appointed a commissioner of the Royal Gunpowder and Saltpeter Administration and took up residence in the Paris Arsenal.There he equipped a fine laboratory, which attracted young chemists from all over Europe to learn about the â€Å"Chemical Revolution† then in progress. He meanwhile succeeded in producing more and better gunpowder by increasing the supply and ensuring the purity of the constituents—saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoalà ¢â‚¬â€as well as by improving the methods of granulating the powder. Characteristic of Lavoisier’s chemistry was his systematic determination of the weights of reagents and products involved in chemical reactions, including the gaseous components, and his underlying belief that matter—identified by weight—would be conserved through any reaction (the law of conservation of mass).Among his contributions to chemistry associated with this method were the understanding of combustion and respiration as caused by chemical reactions with the part of the air (as discovered by Priestley) that he named â€Å"oxygen,† and his definitive proof by composition and decomposition that water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen. His giving new names to substances—most of which are still used today—was an important means of forwarding the Chemical Revolution, because these terms expressed the theory behind them. In the case of oxygen, from the Greek meaning â₠¬Å"acid-former,† Lavoisier expressed his theory that oxygen was the acidifying principle. He considered 33 substances as elements—by his definition, substances that chemical analyses had failed to break down into simpler entities.Ironically, considering his opposition to phlogiston (see Priestley), among these substances was caloric, the unweighable substance of heat, and possibly light, that caused other substances to expand when it was added to them. To propagate his ideas, in 1789 he published a textbook, Traite Elementaire de chimie, and began a journal, Annales de Chimie, which carried research reports about the new chemistry almost exclusively. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier conducts an experiment on human respiration in this drawing made by his wife, who depicted herself at the table on the far right. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith Memorial Collection, Department of Special Collections, University of Pennsylvania Library.A political and social liberal, Lavoisier took an ac tive part in the events leading to the French Revolution, and in its early years he drew up plans and reports advocating many reforms, including the establishment of the metric system of weights and measures. Despite his eminence and his services to science and France, he came under attack as a former farmer-general of taxes and was guillotined in 1794. A noted mathematician, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, remarked of this event, â€Å"It took them only an instant to cut off that head, and a hundred years may not produce another like it. † Source: http://www. chemheritage. org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/early-chemistry-and-gases/lavoisier. aspx Others: http://preparatorychemistry. com/Bishop_nomenclature_help. htm