Add Media

No PSYCHOLOGY REVISION- MRS DAWSON instances of colony at that place argon incompatible sticks of dependence, these atomic number 18 the biological model, the cognitive model and the loving accomplishment model. Initiation this refers to the transit where single(a)s fit to last habit-forming Maintance this is the process whereby citizenry continue to be lose habit-formingly even in the face of untoward consequences pass this is the process whereby individuals who cod managed to construct their addictive habit start to show signs and symptoms of the conduct over again. biological MODEL They say that it is an illness.Addiction is an illness whence the problem is within the person. Be dislodgee it is an illness, it stinkpot be cured. We ar born with just ab go forththing and that something is inductioned off. to a greater extent believably to be addicted to it. If a person waives their colony, a biological predisposition makes retroversion much belike . The role of dopamine in addiction Initiation- Research shows addiction al panaches stimulates the final payment circuit in the hotshot. Rewarding experiences triggers the release of dopamine and deedively tell the brain to do it again. Maintance Drugs eventu on the wholey result in a reduction in the activity of positive reward circuits in the brain.The negative state then vex in dominant driving force in the do drugs calling. The individual doesnt decl ar the drug for pleasure, b bely generates it to keep down unpleasement. Because of this, they take away more(prenominal) of the drug. Relapse Eventually the desire for the drug may h r atomic number 18 out more importance than more other(a) desires. The frontal cortex has become little effective at making stopping points and judging the consequences of action. Imminent reward that forces the addict to take the drugs. The endogenous opiod system This is a grapheme of addiction. It as well as includes the brain. Transmitters in the brain include enkeohain and the endorphins.They atomic number 18 activated in pleasure. Naltexrexone this is an intoxi faecal mattert intervention, which prevents opiod receptors, and this in addition prevents effects of alcohol. Neurodaptation KOCH AND LE MOAL says drugs dependence is to do with neuroadptations. They state that mind-altering drugs change the brains wiring. If stopped, the changes are no longer necessary and causes disruption. Genetics Good way to seek this is to study twins. Family studies then to lucubrate environmental factors in the development of addiction as well. hold to bewitch if it is environmental or catching.Agravel & Lynsky 2006 genic define with heritability estimates ranging amid 45% -> 79% Kender et all (1998) 1934 female twins. Drug addiction was chiefly due to genetic factor. Blum et al (1991) addictive off springs had the A1 gene showed that they had fewer dopamine receptors. Those who boast these gens a re more likely to be addicted to drugs which provide produce more dopamine. only when this could be because they view as fewer dopamine. EVAULATION OF BIOLOGICAL MODEL X range is too wide X animals are non humans so asst verify. v beg offs why some mass are addicted X BUT sometimes it depends on the environmentX neurotransmitters assimilate complex effects. Not fully understood X neglects accessible situations X too reductionalist US soldiers took drugs while they were away alone erst they were home they didnt. X some hoi polloi may be experimenters ? moaner or the egg X very correlation. Cant unite them in a cause and effect way. X need more inquiry in to it X battalion may indulge but not addicted X animal studies LEARNING scheme OF habituation Acquires habits, which are learnt according to the principles of SLT. Things bottom of the inning be unlearned. There are distinguishable degrees of addiction. Bandura Bobo doll Children learnt via observation some(pre nominal) one who is reinforced (operant) their doings is more likely yo be limited Vicarious reward reinforcement received indirectly by observing someone else and being reinforced Imitating someone we admire cognitive labelling model An alcoholic walks pass a pub. The inform, boyfriendd with the drink ining take a craps a psychological response and actives a memory of deglutition. The sign of a steep embrace rate tells the person they need a drink. Outcome expectancy model Someone who has an addictive doings, when they are confronted with a cue for the drug, it might trigger thoughts of excitement and would do it againClassical learn Addictive behaviour is also seen as being developed by classical instruct. Drug step became associated with certain environmental factors until these factors alone produce a high. Intuition, maintance and relapse are due to learning experiences involving environmental. The cue-reacting theory Carter and Tiff some(prenominal) (1999) add icts associates things, which were corresponding to their addiction. Explained via classical conditioning. The cues become able to elite conditioning responses even in the absence of the action smoking or manoeuvre behaviour. Operant conditioningPositive reinforcement Pleasant consequences Negative reinforcement Something unpleasant (likely to be repeated) penalty Unpleasant consequences. Less likely to be repeated. Addicts change their behaviour in response to rewards and punishment. Bring to the highest degree change in climate and material changes. Skinner worked with animals. Greater behaviour changes when he gave less reinforcement or when they are unpredictable. Can explain why gamblers may set d birth addicted. They are not winning all the time, makes compulsion strange. Learning Model Initiation initial rewards shapes future behaviourMaintance continues rewards reinforce and maintain behaviour Relapse person giving up, relapse might be less likely if they set about relearnt the addictive behaviour all individuals are equally odd EVAULATION X animals X learning theories are reductionalists v can explain differences COGNITIVE MODEL OF ADDICTION Cognitive is thinking. This emphasises the habitual ways people deal with life events may run woeful to addicitive behabviour. A person can rely on drugs or even frolic as a way of coping with lifes problems. only if these may create more problems than causes.Beck et al the vicious cycle Low mood -gt using smoking/ playing period -gt finacial, health check or affectionate problem -gt the cycle continues Low mood can be relieved by addictive behaviour. Addiction can ternary to problems. These problems lead to downcast mood. The cycle begins again. Coping self mediciation model Initation indivduals uses the addicitive behaviour to copy with stress/psycholoigcal problems. It is not choosen at random, it has been selected to swear out with a feature problem. Helps fulfil the 3 main functions mood regulation performance trouble distractionMaintance and relapse many smaller mention stress relief as a major reason why they keep to their habit self efficacy theory BANDORA This refers to one being organised and make got any actions required to meet particular goal. This plays an important part in whether or not a person result start to engage in addicitive behaviour (initation). Whether they bank they can do anything about it once realized (maintance and relaspe) FAULTY THINKING Addicters lie to themselves because they think that it may bring them luck. merely not all things are luck but people believe that whhat they are doing is correct.EVALUATION OF COGNITIVE MODEL Strenghts. v cognitive explanations friend explain individuals differences. Not all(prenominal)one is addicitive X relative success of cognitive treatment of addicition backup on that point is some cognitive basis Weaknessess X publication persuade studies show a marry between positive ex pectations and drinking behaviour. But not all studies are publlished so we last an unrepresentative collect EXPLANATIONS FOR SPECIFIC ADDICTIONS Smoking Smoking produces a phsyical addicition to nicotine, influencing dopamine production and the brain reward system. The WHO (world health organisations) estimates there are 1. billion so-and-sors worldwide and they smoke 6 trilliopn cigarettes a year. Bad for you Smoking leads to high blood pressure, amount disease, lung disease, cancer and strokes. Pregnant women who smoke are more likely to permit premature babies. The fact peoe sedate smoke knowing the facts shows how addicitve it is. Nicotine There are about 3000 chemical components in cigarette smoke but nicotime is the addicitve chemical. HILTS (1994) compared nicotine with heroin, cocaine, alcohol,m caffeine and cannabis. He ranked nicotine lowest in calls of effect but highest in terms of dependence.Smokers why try to hark back up pick out a relapse rate of 70%. Qui ckly Addictive DIFRANZA (2007) tack teenage smokers had strong craving cigarettes two days subsequently staring, suggesting how cursorily people became addicted. Reasons to smoke biological model Nicotine in cigarettes is seen as impact production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and acetylcholine, producing a reward effect. Genetics have more vulnerabilty to smoking addicition. SHIELDS (1992) mattered at 42 twins pairs who had been reared apart. Only 9 wre discordant for smoking (one was and was a non smoker, which suggests that genes may play a part) Social FactorsMost people start smoking in their childhood or adolescence. Operant conditioning does not explain this because the first few cigarettes taste horrible. So OC says that they get rewards from peers. Social Learning Theory Children copy their role models because they think it is all right to smoke. Parents But one main influence is the parents. LADER AND MATHESON (1991) give tongue to if parents smoked, children we re double as likely to smoke. Cognitive model The cognitive model suggests that teenagers have strategies for not smoking even when pressurised by peers.But there was a company who were ready to smoke (MITCHELL and WEST 1996) Individual differences In a US study, it suggests strong links between smoking and poor school records, low self-esteem no sport, and other illegal drug taking. Cognitive factors Smokers are seen as possessing irrational thoughts for instance that smoking repairs cognitive functionoing or cool off nerves. Such disfunctional ideas can be self-fulfilling AO2 The fact that biological therapies help oneself people quit supports the biological theory. Many people quit nicotine replacings suggesting social and cognitive factors. Supporting evidenceNIDA (2005) fix that 90% of American smokers started as teenagers, mainly as a result of copying peers, suggesting SLT as a cause of initiation of smoking. A recent Canadian study (Khaled 2005) set up that there was a link between depression and nicotine where depression was higher in smokers and even higher in smokers who wanted to give up. PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLERS Need to meet 5/10 to be problem gamblers. More than 5, you are a pathological gambler. 1/ preoccupation with gambling 2/ need to gamble with increasing amount of money in order to strain the desired excitement 3/ repeated unsuccessful efforts to control/out back or stop gambling. / restlessness or irritability when assay to out down on gambling. 5/ use of gambling as means of escaping from problems or relieving dysphonic mood. 6/ government issue to gambling even after losing money, in the hope of winning it back 7/ lying to family members, therapists or others to conceal the extent of gambling 8/ committing illegal acts such as forgery, fraud or theft to financial gambling 9/ jeopardising or losing significant relationships/jobs/educational opportunist as a result of gambling 10/ reliance on others to produce money to relieve a de sperate situation ca utilise by gambling Getting a highOne of the motivators is the high they experience when they are close to winning. Raised levels of dopamine and noradrenalin have been found in people after episodes of gambling and in serious gamblers. These neurochemicals can be raised with the thought of gambling. Biological stop gambling seems to result in the same kind of ask outal symptoms associated with fish fillet drugs. ROSENTHAL ET AL (1992) found that over 60% of pathology gamblers, reported bodily withdraw and these could be compared with withdrawal of drugs. A number of studies have shown a link between potential brain abnormalities.It is cerebrate between front lobe dysfunction and problem gambling (CAVEAINI ET AL 2002) Genetics There is evidence from studies that gambling could be inherited. Results of a twin study from SHAH (2005) found evidence of genetic transmission of gambling in men. demeanoral/sociocultural factors You are more likely to gamble if yo u are near a gambling vault of heaven Alcohol It has been suggested that drinking increasing gambling, particularly in problem gambling. Young, game-machine gamblers mystify on the machine longer when drinking. (POLS ET AL 1991). However, regular casino gamblers drink less when they are gambling.Behavioural SLT says that people copy from others. Operant says that people do it for rewards and getting high. Classical says that people associate the winning with the pleasure. Cognitive ZUCKERMAN (1979) claimed there are individual differences in the need for sensation seeking. They look for wide-ranging and tender experiences. They have a low appreciation of risk and look forward to the buzz more than low sensation seeks. Vulnerability of addiction Self esteem Teenagers are more likely to be linked with low self esteem and have addictive behaviours. Higher grade of depression and suicide DEVERENSKY 2003LEVY 2009 low self esteem growing the chances of create addiction. Genetic vu lnerability. Several factors might be required have an addiction. AO2 actor and effect addiction because of low self esteem or low self esteem causes addiction. GREENBERG ET AL (1999) found that in a exemplification of 129-addiction student, none had issues with low self esteem. Psychological therapies found on realizing self esteem levels in addicts may stop them relapsing. Attributions Explanations people give for their own behaviour. Cognitive behaviour can play a part in addictive behaviour.MOORE ET AL (1999) says that young male problem gamblers sometimes have unrealistic ideas about their chances of winning and of their ability to make things happen. People with addictive behaviour oftentimes have poor self efficacy (blame the foreign world) and an external locus of control. They dont blame their selves. SENEVITNE ET AL (2000) used a questionnaire and 70 alcoholics. The found that alcoholics saw other relapse because they have poor will power while their own relapsed we re beyond their control and not their fault. AO2 May have more to do with responsibility of the addict.Therapies guidance on positive pictures on the addicts own power can lead to better success rates. Fast successful quitters in clinics often relapse on the out boldness as they blame outside cues to starting again. nature EYSENCH (1997) psychological resource model which has 3 dimensions which are inherited P (psychoticism) Aggressive, coldness, impulsivity and egocentricity N (neuroticism) Moodiness, imitabilty and anxiety E (extraversion) Optimums, pull throughliness and sociability There is gnomish evidence to support a link between E and drug dependence. N and P have links with addiction to heroin, alcohol and nicotine.There is a correlation between alcohol addiction and anti social personalities. sexual activity Men are more likely to gamble because they are more competitive. Recent evidence has shown that there is an increase of women gamblers. With females, they are m ore likely to be addicted to smoking because of the risks of the consequences. (FOX 1994) However, in gambling more boys are regular gamblers than girls. JACOBS 2001 says boys start gambling earlier, spend more money and make whoopie competitive skill found games. Social linguistic scope Social context can influence vulnerability to dependency in many ways.Parents can be influenced through their own names to addictive behaviours. Drinking and to a lesser extent, smoking are not seen as sociability pleasant behaviours. CICCHETTIC 1999 states getting drunk and being anti-social can lead to drug ill-use as can being depressed or anxious as a teenager. WAGNER ET AL 2002 found cannabis users were more likely to take cocaine so the social context can act as a gateway to harder drugs. AO2 LESHNER 1998 believes that treatment must include social context otherwise if cue addict returns to the same social context, they will relapse.KUENTZEL 2008 found that pathological gambler give socia lly acceptable answers in self reports, playing down their addiction, suggesting data could be invalid. Family influence Teenagers copied off other SLT. It also shows that a liberal attitude to drugs, poor bonding and nonadaptive relationship can lead to addictive behaviour. Parents are unconcerned about their children. Sociocultural background HALL 1990 found people in tear down socio economic backgrounds were more likely to take drugs. Poor education + live in areas = high crime VITARA (2001) linked between alcohol abuse and problem gambling particularly in males.The role of media in addictive behaviour The media has influence on addictive behaviour. Advertising This can be used to encourage sales of alcoholic drinks and the lottery etc. or by the government to start anti-smoking campaigns etc. Alcohol and cigarettes CHAPMAN ET ALL 1982 found underage smokers preferred the more hinting brands. ATKIN ET AL 1984 found that 12-17 years old who had watched more adverts on drinking alcohol were more likely to applaud of underage drinking. Banned on advert for cigarettes Cigarettes adverting is now banned in the UK as evidence as shown people are influenced by the advert they see.Role models Alcohol seems acceptable because of TV and films. SLT suggests we learn what we see which means TV characterises may influence the audience. Smokers, gamblers or drinkers as long as they are loveable rogues could be seen as role models. CHARLTON 1986 seeing adverts made children associate smoking with looking grown up GUNSEKA 2005 found that drug taking in films to be portrayed in positive fashion with fine reference to negative outcomes. AO2 Media can be positive influence on addictive behaviour. Media create moral panics which would stop addicts.The impact of media on addictive behaviour is hard to assess as research is correlation so dont know what other variables are in place. Models of barroom of addiction Addiction = bad for a person and society Behaviour can stem from biological behaviour and cognitive factors with the addictive behaviour/addiction. It is in our interest to help prevent them before they even being or help to stop someone intending to begin an addiction TRA THE system OF REASONED ACTION AJZEN AND FISHBEIN 1975 There are three general components, attitude, subjective norms and behavioural intention.This theory states the factors that are involved when people decide on their actions. People behave based on their attitudes of the behaviour and the interaction of what others will think of their behaviour. Essentially this model believes that if you have an intention to engage in a behaviour it can predict that you make a decision to carry out the behaviour. CRANO ET ALL 2008 used TRA to estimate teenagers vulnerability to inhalant abuse, by assessing intention to use or head off drug taking and actual behaviour. The model was found to be absolute as a predictive toll and thus useful in helping addicts to abstain.AO2 of TRA C ritics see TRA as deficient in explaining behaviour of those who have little control over their behaviour, such as addicts. TRA does not select personality and cultural factors or demographics that shape addictive behaviour. Addicts are often aware of their behaviour and that it is not rational but they cannot help their addiction. THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR TPB TRA was modified to produce TPB, adding a new component, the influence of perceived control. The theory of planned behaviour perceived control this is similar to Banduras concept of self-efficacy.According to TPB behavioural intentions are the outcome of the following beliefs. locating this can be a positive or negative valuation of behaviour combined with beliefs about the outcome (e. g giving up smoking will be hard but will improve health). Subjective norms, perception if social norms my friends will approve of my attempt to give up smoking. Perceived Behaviour Control a belief that someone can give up. AO2 of TPB T he model assumes behaviours are conscious good and planned, which may not be the case with addicts.As with TRA, TPB often used questionnaires to benefit data, which can have issues with self report and social desirability. Most research is western countries cultural bias as individuals might not be as important in eastern cultures. Types of intervention Stages of changes model PROCHASHA AND DICLEMENTE said there were 5 stages that have to be overcome to beat addiction Pre-contemplation before you start thinking about quitting the addiction. Contemplation when you start to quit your addiction. Preparation seek methods to stop addiction. Action is starting the stopping to the addiction Maintance.People sometimes switch backwards and forwards and this is called the revolving door phenomenon. People in the preparation stage were more likely to attempt to give up an addiction than those in the contemplation stage. Psychological interventions Aversion therapy Contingency assure Cue exposure self management technique Aversion therapy Punishment rather than reward. Been used to break smoking and alcohol addiction. Electric shocks every time the individual took addiction but was not successful. The addicts have been give a drug called Antabuse, when they drink alcohol, they are sick. They will link between the two.LANG AND MARLETT TWO LIMITATIONS X not everyone was willing to take the drug. X doesnt explain why they become addicted to the behaviour. With smoking, therapy was successful. Had to puff every 6 seconds, made the individual feel ill and nausea, assisted the two SPIEGLAR AND GUEVREMONT. However, not been consistent across studies and a higher risk associated with this treatment for people who have heart problems. Didnt focus on the act of smoking rather than causing the underlying addiction. Contingency contracting Individual to refer the environmental factors that are associated with smoking/drinking.The therapist aim to gradually snap off the c ustomer to different cues and helps them to develop coping strategies to deal with the cues without resorting to smoking/drinking. Reduces the patients physical dependence on alcohol. but it does not teach them to deal with cues when they return to every day life. Cue exposure Addictive behaviour are often caused in the pressure of various stimuli. Cue exposure involves presenting the cue to the individual and helping them t control their reaction to it. In this way the response of smoking in the pressure of alcohol fades away or exiting wishes.This is thought to be more effective than simply trying to avoid the cues. For example more drinking. Self-management technique This involves a variety of behavioural techniques. The individual is usually monitored by a therapist. The individual is asked to keep a occasional record of their addictive habits and the changes to try and become aware of the things that make them become addictive. The individual should question the effects of the addiction. HALL ET ALL said that techniques can be used as a broader treatment programme, but they do not seem to be particularly effective on their own. EVAUALTIONWhile these behaviours based can be effective, they all share the problem that they do not really address the underlying reason why people have become addictive in the first place. Often short term With all therapies for addiction, they work better if they are mixed with other therapies based on other treatment. Different ways/treatment to smoking/drinking/drugs Biological interventions have been widely used to help people give up on smoking. There have been different way of tackling with peoples smoking addiction. There are different types of treatment Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)This type of treatment involves nicotine gum, patches and nasal spray and others. These are effect because they help smokers stop their addiction in several ways. While the smoker take one of these replacement therapies, they are helping to withdraw the symptoms of smoking. These have also shown that these can have positive reinforcement with the person who is trying to give up. this meaning that the person is more likely to not do it again because they have something to distract them from the actual smoking. With this the customer will used varies of different formulations and will slowly used smaller formulations as gum.Even though the client will have an urge to have a cigarettes, there are other ways to come about this. Nicotine patches help because they gradually drive nicotine throughout the day. If the client has a cigarette during the treatment, they are more likely to not repeat this again because the cigarette will be less satisfying. Bupropion Another way of helping with the addiction of smoking is bupropion. This drug work by increasing the brain levels of dopamine and norepinephrine, this simulates the effects of nicotine of these neurotransmitters. This is an effect treatment because it helped to bl ock out the nicotine receptors.This means that the client is less likely that the client will relapse and have a cigarette. It has also bee proven my psychologists WATTS that it is successful. Varenicline This type of drug released dopamine in the brain. It also blocks effects of any nicotine added to the system. Trials have found that varenicline is superior to bupropion in helping people to stop smoking. excessively it has helped smokers reduce the amount of cigarettes they have after a 12-week trial. Nicotine vaccines This is a new clinical trial, which is still undergoing at the moment.The type of trial is trying to help produce anti-bodies to the nicotine. The anti-bodies bind the nicotine so it takes longer to go to the brain. This therefore reduces the effect of the cigarettes smoke. EVALUTION Nicotine replacement therapy delivers nicotine into the bloodstream much more slowly than cigarette smokers does. But then it doesnt satisfy the smoker completely ad perhaps the clien t will give up on the therapy and relapse. Other research has shown that its the nicotine rather than other components that underlines the addiction and this maintains the cigarettes smoking.This therefore doesnt rid the client the nicotine addiction. There also have been issues with health and safety with the nicotine. Some research has shown that it could cause cardiovascular, cancer, reproductive disorders and delayed wound healing. Because the body is still being supplied with nicotine, this could increase heart rate, coronary blood vessels and temporarily increase bloody pressure. There are quite a few side effects to take just nicotine and because of this, it is advised not to take it during motherliness but then again it is safer to take nicotine than to smoke in pregnancy.